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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Human mission to Mars</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div>
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<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Man on Mars" redirects here. For the song, see <a href="/wiki/Man_on_Mars_(song)" title="Man on Mars (song)">Man on Mars (song)</a>.</div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:312px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg/310px-Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="310" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg/465px-Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg/620px-Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="4800" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Ice_Home_concept.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Concept for Mars base with ice dome, pressurized rover, and Marsuits</div></div></div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg/220px-Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg/330px-Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg/440px-Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1050" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Astronaut_working_on_Mars.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Rendition of person in a spacesuit on Mars</div></div></div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jsc2004e18862.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Jsc2004e18862.jpg/220px-Jsc2004e18862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Jsc2004e18862.jpg/330px-Jsc2004e18862.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Jsc2004e18862.jpg/440px-Jsc2004e18862.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1688" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Jsc2004e18862.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Spacecraft for transporting crew to Mars</div></div></div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg/220px-Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="350" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg/330px-Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg/440px-Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1077" data-file-height="1715" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Falcon_Heavy_cropped.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>SpaceX <a href="/wiki/Falcon_Heavy" title="Falcon Heavy">Falcon Heavy</a>, with more launch capacity than the Space Shuttle, was used to send a test payload beyond the orbit of Mars in early 2018.</div></div></div>
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<p>A <b>human mission to Mars</b> has been the subject of <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a>, and scientific proposals since the 19th century. The plans comprise proposals to land on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, eventually <a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars" title="Colonization of Mars">settling on</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars" title="Terraforming of Mars">terraforming the planet</a>, while utilizing its moons, <a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a>.
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</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">exploration of Mars</a> has been a goal of national space programs for decades. Preliminary work for missions that would involve <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human explorers</a> has been undertaken since the 1950s, with planned missions typically being stated as taking place 10 to 30 years in the future when they are drafted. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_Mars_mission_plans" title="List of crewed Mars mission plans">List of crewed Mars mission plans</a> shows the various mission proposals that have been put forth by multiple organizations and <a href="/wiki/Space_agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Space agency">space agencies</a> in this field of <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>. Plans have varied from scientific expeditions in which a small (2 to 8) group visits Mars for a period of a few weeks or year, to the permanent <a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars" title="Colonization of Mars">colonization of Mars</a>.
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</p><p>In the 2010s, numerous American, European, and Asian agencies were developing proposals for human missions to Mars. They are now developing and testing the technologies.
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Mars_in_fiction" title="Mars in fiction">Mars in fiction</a> is a frequent target of exploration and settlement in books, graphic novels, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_on_Mars" title="List of films set on Mars">films</a>.
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</p>
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<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Travel_to_Mars"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Travel to Mars</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Landing_on_Mars"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Landing on Mars</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Challenges"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Challenges</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Logistical"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Logistical</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Medical"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medical</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Planetary_protection"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Planetary protection</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Mission_proposals"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Mission proposals</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">20th century</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Wernher_von_Braun_proposal_(1947_through_1950s)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Wernher von Braun proposal (1947 through 1950s)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#U.S._proposals_(1950s,_1960s,_and_1970s)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">U.S. proposals (1950s, 1960s, and 1970s)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Soviet_mission_proposals_(1956_through_1969)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Soviet mission proposals (1956 through 1969)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Case_for_Mars_(1981–1996)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Case for Mars (1981–1996)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#NASA_Space_Exploration_Initiative_(1989)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">NASA Space Exploration Initiative (1989)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Mars_Direct_(early_1990s)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Mars Direct (early 1990s)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#International_Space_University_(1991)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.7</span> <span class="toctext">International Space University (1991)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#NASA_Design_reference_missions_(1990s)"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.8</span> <span class="toctext">NASA Design reference missions (1990s)</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#21st_century"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">21st century</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#NASA_Design_reference_missions_(2000+)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">NASA Design reference missions (2000+)</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#MARPOST_(2000–2005)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">MARPOST (2000–2005)</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#ESA_Aurora_programme_(2001+)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">ESA Aurora programme (2001+)</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#ESA/Russia_plan_(2002)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">ESA/Russia plan (2002)</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#USA_Vision_for_Space_Exploration_(2004)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">USA Vision for Space Exploration (2004)</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Mars_Society_Germany_–_European_Mars_Mission_(EMM)_(2005)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Mars Society Germany – European Mars Mission (EMM) (2005)</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#China_National_Space_Administration_(CNSA)_(2006)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.7</span> <span class="toctext">China National Space Administration (CNSA) (2006)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#The_One-Way_Trip_Option_(2006);_Mars_to_Stay_(2006)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.8</span> <span class="toctext">The One-Way Trip Option (2006); Mars to Stay (2006)</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#NASA_Design_Reference_Mission_5.0_(2007)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.9</span> <span class="toctext">NASA Design Reference Mission 5.0 (2007)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#NASA_Design_Reference_Mission_Architecture_5.0_(2009)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.10</span> <span class="toctext">NASA Design Reference Mission Architecture 5.0 (2009)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#NASA_Austere_Human_Missions_to_Mars_(2009)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.11</span> <span class="toctext">NASA Austere Human Missions to Mars (2009)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#USA's_Mars_orbit_by_the_mid-2030s_(2010)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.12</span> <span class="toctext">USA's Mars orbit by the mid-2030s (2010)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Martian_Frontier_(2007–2011)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.13</span> <span class="toctext">Martian Frontier (2007–2011)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Russian_mission_proposals_(2011)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.14</span> <span class="toctext">Russian mission proposals (2011)</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#2-4-2_concept_(2011–2012)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.15</span> <span class="toctext">2-4-2 concept (2011–2012)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Boeing_Conceptual_Space_Vehicle_Architecture_(2012)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.16</span> <span class="toctext">Boeing Conceptual Space Vehicle Architecture (2012)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Mars_One_(2012)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.17</span> <span class="toctext">Mars One (2012)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><a href="#Inspiration_Mars_Foundation_(2013)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.18</span> <span class="toctext">Inspiration Mars Foundation (2013)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#Boeing_Affordable_Mission_(2014)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.19</span> <span class="toctext">Boeing Affordable Mission (2014)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-37"><a href="#NASA's_Journey_to_Mars:_Pioneering_Next_Steps_in_Space_Exploration_(2015)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.20</span> <span class="toctext">NASA's Journey to Mars: Pioneering Next Steps in Space Exploration (2015)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-38"><a href="#SpaceX_Mars_transportation_infrastructure_(2016-)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.21</span> <span class="toctext">SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure (2016-)</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-39"><a href="#ITS_launch_vehicle"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.21.1</span> <span class="toctext">ITS launch vehicle</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-40"><a href="#BFR_(Big_Falcon_Rocket)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.21.2</span> <span class="toctext">BFR (Big Falcon Rocket)</span></a></li>
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||
</ul>
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||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><a href="#Mars_Base_Camp_(2016)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.22</span> <span class="toctext">Mars Base Camp (2016)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42"><a href="#Deep_Space_Transport_(2017)"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.23</span> <span class="toctext">Deep Space Transport (2017)</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Current_intentions_by_nations_and_space_agencies"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Current intentions by nations and space agencies</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#Current_intentions_by_private_companies"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Current intentions by private companies</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#Technological_innovations_and_hurdles"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Technological innovations and hurdles</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><a href="#Precursor_missions"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Precursor missions</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Crewed_flyby"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Crewed flyby</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><a href="#Missions_to_Deimos_or_Phobos"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Missions to Deimos or Phobos</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Mars_sample_return_missions"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Mars sample return missions</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><a href="#Crewed_orbital_missions"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Crewed orbital missions</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-51"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-52"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-53"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-54"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Travel_to_Mars">Travel to Mars</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Travel to Mars">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg/220px-Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg/330px-Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg/440px-Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2675" data-file-height="1541" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_Globes_of_Mars.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Three views of planet Mars, the "red planet"</div></div></div>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:332px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_close_appr.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mars_close_appr.png/330px-Mars_close_appr.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="193" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mars_close_appr.png/495px-Mars_close_appr.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mars_close_appr.png/660px-Mars_close_appr.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="444" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_close_appr.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Closest approaches of Mars to Earth, 2014–2061. Communication times are slightly shorter when it is closest.</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>The energy needed for transfer between planetary orbits, or "<a href="/wiki/Delta-v" title="Delta-v">∆V</a>", is lowest at intervals fixed by the <a href="/wiki/Synodic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Synodic period">synodic period</a>. For Earth / Mars trips, this is every 26 months (2 years and 2 months),<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001-1">[1]</a></sup> so missions are typically planned to coincide with one of these <a href="/wiki/Launch_window" title="Launch window">launch windows</a>. Due to the eccentricity of Mars' orbit, the energy needed in the low-energy windows varies on roughly a 15-year cycle<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001-1">[1]</a></sup> with the easiest windows needing only half the energy of the peaks.<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001window_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001window-2">[2]</a></sup> In the 20th century, there was a minimum in the 1969 and 1971 launch windows and another low in 1986 and 1988, then the cycle repeated.<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001-1">[1]</a></sup> The next low-energy launch window occurs in 2033.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Several types of mission plans have been proposed, such as the opposition class and conjunction class,<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001window_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001window-2">[2]</a></sup> or the <a href="/wiki/Crocco_Grand_Tour" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocco Grand Tour">Crocco flyby</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001flyby_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001flyby-4">[4]</a></sup> The lowest energy transfer to Mars is a <a href="/wiki/Hohmann_transfer_orbit" title="Hohmann transfer orbit">Hohmann transfer orbit</a>; a mission to Mars using Hohmann transfer involves an approximately 9 month travel time from Earth to Mars, about five hundred days at Mars to wait for the transfer window to Earth, and a Hohmann transfer of about 9 months to return to Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Shorter Mars mission plans have round-trip flight times of 400 to 450 days,<sup id="cite_ref-vonBraun_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vonBraun-7">[7]</a></sup> but requiring a higher energy. A fast Mars mission of 245 days round trip could be possible with on-orbit staging.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> In 2014 <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_capture" title="Ballistic capture">ballistic capture</a> was proposed, which may reduce fuel cost and provide more flexible launch windows compared to the Hohmann.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>In the Crocco grand tour, a crewed spacecraft would get a flyby of Mars and Venus for under a year in space.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Some flyby mission architectures can also be extended to include a style of Mars landing with a flyby excursion lander spacecraft.<sup id="cite_ref-wired.com_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wired.com-11">[11]</a></sup> Proposed by R. Titus in 1966, it involved extending a flyby mission with a short stay lander.<sup id="cite_ref-wired.com_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wired.com-11">[11]</a></sup> Basically, a short stay lander-ascent vehicle would separate from a "parent" Earth-Mars transfer prior to its flyby of Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-wired.com_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wired.com-11">[11]</a></sup> The Ascent-Descent lander would arrive sooner and either go into orbit around Mars or land, and depending on the design offer perhaps 10–30 days before it needed to launch itself back to the main transfer vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-wired.com_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wired.com-11">[11]</a></sup> (see also <a href="/wiki/Mars_flyby" title="Mars flyby">Mars flyby</a>).
|
||
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Aerobraking" title="Aerobraking">Aerobraking</a> at Mars was estimated in the 1980s to cut the mass of a Mars mission lifted off the Earth by half.<sup id="cite_ref-spaceflight.nasa.gov_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaceflight.nasa.gov-12">[12]</a></sup> As a result, Mars missions have designed interplanetary spacecraft and landers capable of aero-braking.<sup id="cite_ref-spaceflight.nasa.gov_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaceflight.nasa.gov-12">[12]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Landing_on_Mars">Landing on Mars</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Landing on Mars">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:312px;"><a href="/wiki/File:S91_25383marslanding.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/S91_25383marslanding.jpg/310px-S91_25383marslanding.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="226" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/S91_25383marslanding.jpg/465px-S91_25383marslanding.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/S91_25383marslanding.jpg/620px-S91_25383marslanding.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4447" data-file-height="3247" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:S91_25383marslanding.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Insets depict observation and analysis to find a safe landing site</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>When an expedition reaches the orbit of Mars, it may drop into orbit around Mars by either of two main options: using rockets to slow down, or <a href="/wiki/Aerocapture" title="Aerocapture">aerocapture</a>. The same is true for missions to the surface. The state of the atmosphere, the altitude, and the properties of the landing site must come into consideration for a surface landing. It may be necessary to avoid a scientifically interesting site in the interest of safe touchdown.
|
||
</p><p>Aerocapture at Mars for human missions was studied in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-ntrs.nasa.gov_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-13">[13]</a></sup> In a review of 93 Mars studies 24 used aerocapture for Mars or Earth return.<sup id="cite_ref-ntrs.nasa.gov_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-13">[13]</a></sup> One of the considerations for using aerocapture on crewed missions is a maximum G-limit to experience, for which it was noted 5-g's (5 times Earth gravity) was a common limit to be planned for.<sup id="cite_ref-ntrs.nasa.gov_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-13">[13]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>There may be several landers, for example, separate ones for the crew, a habitat, rover, supplies, ascent vehicle, etc.
|
||
</p><p>Landed spacecraft on the surface of Mars:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_3" title="Mars 3">Mars 3</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Viking_1" title="Viking 1">Viking 1</a> & 2</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Pathfinder" title="Mars Pathfinder">Mars Pathfinder</a> (includes Sojourner)</li>
|
||
<li>MER A & B (<a href="/wiki/Spirit_(rover)" title="Spirit (rover)">Spirit</a> & <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)">Opportunity</a> rovers)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix</a> lander</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity</a> rover</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/InSight" title="InSight">InSight</a></li></ul>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Challenges">Challenges</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Challenges">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<p>One of the big challenges to landing on Mars was overcome by <a href="/wiki/Mariner_4" title="Mariner 4">Mariner 4</a>, when it showed the properties of the atmosphere. Another was a basic survey of the planet, to know what place might be suitable to land. This has been overcome in stages, with major global surveys done by <a href="/wiki/Mariner_9" title="Mariner 9">Mariner 9</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viking_1" title="Viking 1">Viking 1</a> and 2 orbiters, which supported the Viking landers finding a suitable landing site. Later orbiters such as <a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</a>, <a href="/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey" title="2001 Mars Odyssey">2001 Mars Odyssey</a>, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, have helped identify the location of water, a critical resource.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Logistical">Logistical</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Logistical">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>The estimated cost of sending humans to Mars is roughly 500 billion U.S. dollars, though the actual costs are likely to be more.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a></sup> The largest limiting factor for sending humans to Mars is funding. In the late 1950s, rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States stimulated a national priority to send humans to the Moon. Under the current global geopolitical climate, however, government funding of these programs has decreased. Recent participation of private companies in space travel and participation by new nations such as India<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> may present new opportunities.
|
||
</p><p>Critics argue the immediate benefits of establishing a human presence on Mars are more esoteric than practical. Yet proponents of human space exploration contend that while the short term benefits will be academic, the symbolism of establishing a presence in space may garner public interest to join the cause and spark global cooperation. Furthermore, experts maintain that a long-term investment will be necessary for humanity’s survival.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medical">Medical</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medical">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></div>
|
||
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:332px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/330px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="373" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/495px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/660px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1017" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Comparison of radiation doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_assessment_detector" title="Radiation assessment detector">RAD</a> inside the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">MSL</a> (2011–2013).<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20130531a_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531a-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20130531b_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531b-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20130530_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20130530-18">[18]</a></sup> Vertical axis is in <a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">logarithmic scale</a>, so the dose over a Mars year is about 15 times the DOE limit, not less than twice, as a quick glance might suggest. The actual dose would depend on factors such as spacecraft design and natural events such as <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a>.</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>There are several key physical challenges for human missions to Mars:<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20150921_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150921-19">[19]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WIRED-20140212_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIRED-20140212-22">[22]</a></sup> In May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible mission to Mars may involve great <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> risk based on <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">energetic particle radiation</a> measured by the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_assessment_detector" title="Radiation assessment detector">RAD</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a> while traveling from the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> in 2011–2012. The calculated radiation dose was 0.66 <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sieverts</a> round-trip. The agency's career radiation limit for astronauts is 1 sievert.<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20130531a_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531a-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20130531b_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531b-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20130530_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20130530-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SN-20130629_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SN-20130629-23">[23]</a></sup> In September 2017, NASA reported <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation levels</a> on the surface of the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> were temporarily <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(radiation)" title="Orders of magnitude (radiation)">doubled</a>, and were associated with an <a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">aurora</a> 25-times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">solar storm</a> in the middle of the month.<sup id="cite_ref-PHYS-20170930_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PHYS-20170930-24">[24]</a></sup></li></ul>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg/240px-Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg/360px-Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg/480px-Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="766" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_artificial_gravity_1989.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artistic vision of spacecraft providing <a href="/wiki/Artificial_gravity" title="Artificial gravity">artificial gravity</a> by spinning. (see also <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">Centrifugal force</a>)</div></div></div>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness#Human_health_effects" title="Weightlessness">Negative effects</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">prolonged weightlessness environment on human health</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment_due_to_intracranial_pressure" title="Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure">eyesight visual impairment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mader-2011_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mader-2011-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Puiu-20111109_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puiu-20111109-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN-20120109_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20120109-27">[27]</a></sup> (Depends on mission and spacecraft design).</li>
|
||
<li>Psychological effects of isolation from Earth and, by extension, the lack of community due to impossibility of real-time connections with Earth. (Compare <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermit</a>).</li>
|
||
<li>Social effects of several humans living under cramped conditions for more than one Earth year, possibly two or three years, on the mission to Mars, and a comparable length of time on the return to Earth. (Depends on spacecraft and mission design).</li>
|
||
<li>Inaccessibility of terrestrial medical facilities.</li>
|
||
<li>Potential failure of propulsion or life-support equipment.</li></ul>
|
||
<p>Some of these issues were estimated statistically in the HUMEX study.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
|
||
Ehlmann and others have reviewed political and economic concerns, as well as technological and biological feasibility aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> While fuel for roundtrip travel could be a challenge, methane and oxygen can be produced using Martian H<sub>2</sub>O (preferably as water ice instead of liquid water) and atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> with mature technology.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Planetary_protection">Planetary protection</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Planetary protection">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Planetary_protection" title="Planetary protection">Planetary protection</a></div>
|
||
<p>Robotic spacecraft to Mars are required to be sterilized, to have at most 300,000 spores on the exterior of the craft—and more thoroughly sterilized if they contact "special regions" containing water,<sup id="cite_ref-groundwatercontamination_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-groundwatercontamination-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-COSPAR_PLANETARY_PROTECTION_POLICY_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COSPAR_PLANETARY_PROTECTION_POLICY-32">[32]</a></sup> as otherwise there is a risk of contaminating not only the life-detection experiments but possibly the planet itself.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>It is impossible to sterilize human missions to this level, as humans are host to typically a hundred trillion microorganisms of thousands of species of the <a href="/wiki/Human_microbiota" title="Human microbiota">human microbiota</a>, and these cannot be removed while preserving the life of the human. Containment seems the only option, but it is a major challenge in the event of a hard landing (i.e. crash).<sup id="cite_ref-biospherescollide_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biospherescollide-34">[34]</a></sup> There have been several planetary workshops on this issue, but with no final guidelines for a way forward yet.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Human explorers would also be vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Back_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Back contamination">back contamination</a> to Earth if they become carriers of microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Mission_proposals">Mission proposals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mission proposals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_Mars_mission_plans" title="List of crewed Mars mission plans">List of crewed Mars mission plans</a></div>
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||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="20th_century">20th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:S86_25375patraw.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/S86_25375patraw.jpg/170px-S86_25375patraw.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/S86_25375patraw.jpg/255px-S86_25375patraw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/S86_25375patraw.jpg/340px-S86_25375patraw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3014" data-file-height="4475" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:S86_25375patraw.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Fuel is mined from Phobos with the help of a nuclear reactor.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup></div></div></div>
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<p>Over the last century, a number of mission concepts for such an expedition have been proposed. David Portree's history volume <i>Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000</i> discusses many of these.<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001-1">[1]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Wernher_von_Braun_proposal_.281947_through_1950s.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Wernher_von_Braun_proposal_(1947_through_1950s)">Wernher von Braun proposal (1947 through 1950s)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wernher von Braun proposal (1947 through 1950s)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a> was the first person to make a detailed technical study of a Mars mission.<sup id="cite_ref-portree2001_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portree2001-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-platoff_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platoff-38">[38]</a></sup> Details were published in his book <i>Das Marsprojekt</i> (1952, published in English as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mars_Project" title="The Mars Project">The Mars Project</a></i> in 1962<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>) and several subsequent works.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Willy_Ley" title="Willy Ley">Willy Ley</a> popularized a similar mission in English in the book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Conquest_of_Space" title="The Conquest of Space">The Conquest of Space</a></i> (1949), featuring illustrations by <a href="/wiki/Chesley_Bonestell" title="Chesley Bonestell">Chesley Bonestell</a>. Von Braun's Mars project envisioned nearly a thousand three-stage vehicles launching from Earth to ferry parts for the Mars mission to be constructed at a space station in Earth orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-platoff_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platoff-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> The mission itself featured a fleet of ten spacecraft with a combined crew of 70 heading to Mars, bringing three winged surface excursion ships that would land horizontally on the surface of Mars. (Winged landing was considered possible because at the time of his proposal, the Martian atmosphere was believed to be much denser than was later found to be the case.)
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</p><p>In the 1956 revised vision of the Mars Project plan, published in the book <i>The Exploration of Mars</i> by Wernher Von Braun and Willy Ley, the size of the mission was trimmed, requiring only 400 launches to put together two ships, still carrying a winged landing vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> Later versions of the mission proposal, featured in the <a href="/wiki/Disney" class="mw-redirect" title="Disney">Disney</a> "Man In Space" film series,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> showed <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear-powered</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion propulsion">ion-propulsion</a> vehicles for the interplanetary cruise.
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</p>
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<h4><span id="U.S._proposals_.281950s.2C_1960s.2C_and_1970s.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="U.S._proposals_(1950s,_1960s,_and_1970s)">U.S. proposals (1950s, 1960s, and 1970s)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: U.S. proposals (1950s, 1960s, and 1970s)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg/220px-Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg/330px-Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg/440px-Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="975" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Excursion_Module.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artist's conception of the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Excursion_Module" title="Mars Excursion Module">Mars Excursion Module</a> (MEM) proposed in a NASA study in 1963. Crew wear <a href="/wiki/Mars_suit" title="Mars suit">Mars suits</a> on surface EVA from the module.</div></div></div>
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<p>From 1957, work was done by <a href="/wiki/General_Atomic" class="mw-redirect" title="General Atomic">General Atomic</a> on <a href="/wiki/Project_Orion_(nuclear_propulsion)" title="Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)">Project Orion</a>, a proposal for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pulse_propulsion" title="Nuclear pulse propulsion">nuclear pulse propulsion</a> spacecraft. If successful, Orion would have been able to transport extremely large payloads compared to chemical rocketry, making crewed missions to Mars and the outer planets feasible; for example, one of the early vehicle designs was intended to send an 800-ton payload to Mars orbit. The <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Limited Test Ban Treaty</a> of 1963 made further development unviable, and work ended in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
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</p><p>In 1962, Aeronutronic Ford,<sup id="cite_ref-dixon_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dixon-45">[45]</a></sup> General Dynamics and the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company made studies of Mars mission designs as part of NASA Marshall Spaceflight Center "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Project_EMPIRE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Project EMPIRE (page does not exist)">Project EMPIRE</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-platoff_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platoff-38">[38]</a></sup> These studies indicated that a Mars mission (possibly including a Venus fly-by) could be done with a launch of eight Saturn V boosters and assembly in low Earth orbit, or possibly with a single launch of a hypothetical "post Saturn" heavy-lift vehicle. Although the EMPIRE missions were only studies, and never proposed as funded projects, these were the first detailed analyses of what it would take to accomplish a human voyage to Mars using data from actual NASA spaceflight, and laid much of the basis for future studies, including significant mission studies by TRW, North American, Philco, Lockheed, Douglas, and General Dynamics, along with several in-house NASA studies.<sup id="cite_ref-platoff_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platoff-38">[38]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Following the success of the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo Program">Apollo Program</a>, von Braun advocated a crewed mission to Mars as a focus for NASA's crewed space program.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Von Braun's proposal used <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> boosters to launch nuclear-powered (<a href="/wiki/NERVA" title="NERVA">NERVA</a>) upper stages that would power two six-crew spacecraft on a dual mission in the early 1980s. The proposal was considered by President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> but passed over in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>.
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</p><p>In 1975, von Braun discussed the mission architecture that emerged from these Apollo-era studies in a recorded lecture and while doing so suggested that multiple <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Shuttle</a> launches could instead be configured to lift the two Nuclear Thermal Rocket engine equipped spacecraft in smaller parts, for assembly in-orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Soviet_mission_proposals_.281956_through_1969.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Soviet_mission_proposals_(1956_through_1969)">Soviet mission proposals (1956 through 1969)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Soviet mission proposals (1956 through 1969)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Martian_Piloted_Complex" title="Martian Piloted Complex">Martian Piloted Complex</a> and <a href="/wiki/TMK" title="TMK">TMK</a></div>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Martian_Piloted_Complex" title="Martian Piloted Complex">Martian Piloted Complex</a> or "'MPK'" was a proposal by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tikhonravov" title="Mikhail Tikhonravov">Mikhail Tikhonravov</a> of the Soviet Union for a crewed Mars expedition, using the (then proposed) N1 rocket, in studies from 1956 to 1962. The Soviets sent many probes to Mars with some noted success stories including Mars atmospheric entry, but the ratio was low and their space program struggled through disasters like the lost <a href="/wiki/Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">Salyut 1</a> crew and explosions of their N1 rocket (see <a href="/wiki/Mars_3" title="Mars 3">Mars 3</a>)
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/TMK" title="TMK">Heavy Interplanetary Spacecraft</a> (known by the Russian acronym <b>TMK</b>) was the designation of a Soviet Union space exploration proposal in the 1960s to send a crewed flight to Mars and Venus (TMK-MAVR design) without landing. The TMK spacecraft was due to launch in 1971 and make a three-year-long flight including a Mars fly-by at which time probes would have been dropped. The project was never completed because the required <a href="/wiki/N1_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="N1 rocket">N1 rocket</a> never flew successfully. The <i>Mars Expeditionary Complex</i>, or "'MEK"' (1969) was another Soviet proposal for a Mars expedition that would take a crew from three to six to Mars and back with a total mission duration of 630 days.
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Case_for_Mars_.281981.E2.80.931996.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Case_for_Mars_(1981–1996)">Case for Mars (1981–1996)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Case for Mars (1981–1996)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking</a> missions to Mars, between 1981 and 1996 a series of conferences named The Case for Mars were held at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Boulder" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Colorado at Boulder">University of Colorado at Boulder</a>. These conferences advocated human exploration of Mars, presented concepts and technologies, and held a series of workshops to develop a baseline concept for the mission. It proposed use of <a href="/wiki/In-situ_resource_utilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ resource utilization">in-situ resource utilization</a> to manufacture rocket propellant for the return trip. The mission study was published in a series of proceedings volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> Later conferences presented alternative concepts, including the "Mars Direct" concept of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Zubrin" title="Robert Zubrin">Robert Zubrin</a> and David Baker; the "Footsteps to Mars" proposal of <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_A._Landis" title="Geoffrey A. Landis">Geoffrey A. Landis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-footstepstomars_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-footstepstomars-50">[50]</a></sup> which proposed intermediate steps before the landing on Mars, including human missions to Phobos; and the "Great Exploration" proposal from <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>, among others.
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</p>
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<h4><span id="NASA_Space_Exploration_Initiative_.281989.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="NASA_Space_Exploration_Initiative_(1989)">NASA Space Exploration Initiative (1989)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: NASA Space Exploration Initiative (1989)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space_Exploration_Initiative" title="Space Exploration Initiative">Space Exploration Initiative</a></div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_mission.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mars_mission.jpg/220px-Mars_mission.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mars_mission.jpg/330px-Mars_mission.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mars_mission.jpg/440px-Mars_mission.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2032" data-file-height="1393" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_mission.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artist's conception of a human mission on the surface of Mars <br /> 1989 painting by Les Bossinas of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Research Center">Lewis Research Center</a> for NASA</div></div></div>
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<p>In response to a presidential initiative, NASA made a study of a project for human lunar- and Mars exploration as a proposed follow-on to the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> project. This resulted in a report, called the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=90-day_study&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="90-day study (page does not exist)">90-day study</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> in which the agency proposed a long-term plan consisting of completing the Space Station as "a critical next step in all our space endeavors," returning to the Moon and establishing a permanent base, and then sending astronauts to Mars. This report was widely criticized as too elaborate and expensive, and all funding for human exploration beyond Earth orbit was canceled by Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Mars_Direct_.28early_1990s.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mars_Direct_(early_1990s)">Mars Direct (early 1990s)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mars Direct (early 1990s)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_Direct" title="Mars Direct">Mars Direct</a></div>
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<p>Because of the greater distance, the Mars mission would be much more risky and expensive than past Moon flights. Supplies and fuel would have to be prepared for a 2-3 year round trip and the spacecraft would need at least partial shielding from ionizing radiation. A 1990 paper by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Zubrin" title="Robert Zubrin">Robert Zubrin</a> and David A. Baker, then of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Marietta" title="Martin Marietta">Martin Marietta</a>, proposed reducing the mission mass (and hence the cost) by using <a href="/wiki/In_situ_resource_utilization#Mars" title="In situ resource utilization">in situ resource utilization</a> to manufacture propellant from the Martian Atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> This proposal drew on concepts developed by the former "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080621011517/http://spot.colorado.edu/~marscase/Home.html">Case for Mars</a>" conference series. Over the next decade, Zubrin developed it into a mission concept, <a href="/wiki/Mars_Direct" title="Mars Direct">Mars Direct</a>, which he presented in a book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Mars" title="The Case for Mars">The Case for Mars</a></i> (1996). The mission is advocated by the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Society" title="Mars Society">Mars Society</a>, which Zubrin founded in 1998, as practical and affordable.
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</p>
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<h4><span id="International_Space_University_.281991.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="International_Space_University_(1991)">International Space University (1991)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: International Space University (1991)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>In 1991 in Toulouse, France, the International Space University studied an international human Mars mission.<sup id="cite_ref-mendell_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mendell-55">[55]</a></sup> They proposed a crew of 8 traveling to Mars in a nuclear-powered vessel with artificial gravity provided by rotation.<sup id="cite_ref-mendell_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mendell-55">[55]</a></sup> On the surface, 40 tonne habitats pressurized to 10 psi (69 kPa) were powered by a 40 kW photovoltaic array.<sup id="cite_ref-mendell_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mendell-55">[55]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="NASA_Design_reference_missions_.281990s.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="NASA_Design_reference_missions_(1990s)">NASA Design reference missions (1990s)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: NASA Design reference missions (1990s)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_Design_Reference_Mission" title="Mars Design Reference Mission">Mars Design Reference Mission</a></div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg/220px-Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg/330px-Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg/440px-Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4617" data-file-height="3655" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_design_reference_mission_3.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>NASA Mars habitat concept for DRA 1.0, derived from the Mars Direct Architecture. (1995)</div></div></div>
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<p>In the 1990s NASA developed several conceptual level human Mars exploration architectures. One of these was NASA <a href="/wiki/Design_reference_mission_3.0" class="mw-redirect" title="Design reference mission 3.0">Design reference mission 3.0</a> (DRM 3.0) to stimulate further thought and concept development.
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</p><p>Selected other US/NASA studies (1988–2009):<sup id="cite_ref-trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov-56">[56]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<ol><li>1988 "Mars Expedition"</li>
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<li>1989 "Mars Evolution"</li>
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<li>1990 "90-Day Study"</li>
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<li>1991 "Synthesis Group"</li>
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<li>1995 "DRM 1"</li>
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<li>1997 "DRM 3"<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup></li>
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<li>1998 "DRM 4"</li>
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<li>1999 "Dual Landers"</li></ol>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="21st_century">21st century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:277px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Manned_mission_to_Mars_(artist%27s_concept).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Manned_mission_to_Mars_%28artist%27s_concept%29.jpg/275px-Manned_mission_to_Mars_%28artist%27s_concept%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Manned_mission_to_Mars_%28artist%27s_concept%29.jpg/413px-Manned_mission_to_Mars_%28artist%27s_concept%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Manned_mission_to_Mars_%28artist%27s_concept%29.jpg/550px-Manned_mission_to_Mars_%28artist%27s_concept%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3555" data-file-height="2000" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Manned_mission_to_Mars_(artist%27s_concept).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Crew members setting up weather monitoring equipment on the surface of Mars (artist's concept)</div></div></div>
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||
<h4><span id="NASA_Design_reference_missions_.282000.2B.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="NASA_Design_reference_missions_(2000+)">NASA Design reference missions (2000+)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: NASA Design reference missions (2000+)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The NASA <a href="/wiki/Mars_Design_Reference_Mission" title="Mars Design Reference Mission">Mars Design Reference Missions</a> consisted of a series of conceptual design studies for human Mars missions, continued in the 21st century
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Selected other US/NASA plans (1988–2009):<sup id="cite_ref-trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov-56">[56]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<div><ol start="11"><li>2000 SERT (SSP)</li><li>2001 DPT/NEXT</li><li>2002 NEP Art. Gravity</li><li>2009 DRA 5<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup></li></ol></div>
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<h4><span id="MARPOST_.282000.E2.80.932005.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="MARPOST_(2000–2005)">MARPOST (2000–2005)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: MARPOST (2000–2005)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Piloted_Orbital_Station" title="Mars Piloted Orbital Station">Mars Piloted Orbital Station</a> (or MARPOST) is a Russian proposed crewed orbital mission to Mars, using a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> to run an electric rocket engine. Proposed in October 2000 by Yuri Karash from the Russian Academy of Cosmonautics as the next step for Russia in space along with the Russian participation in the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, a 30-volume draft project for MARPOST was confirmed as of 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> Design for the ship was proposed to be ready in 2012, and the ship itself in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="ESA_Aurora_programme_.282001.2B.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="ESA_Aurora_programme_(2001+)">ESA Aurora programme (2001+)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: ESA Aurora programme (2001+)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aurora_programme" title="Aurora programme">Aurora programme</a></div>
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||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg/220px-Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg/330px-Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg/440px-Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3989" data-file-height="4275" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars-human-exploration-art-astronauts-vehicle-dust-full.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artwork featuring astronauts enduring a Mars dust storm near a rover</div></div></div>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> had a long-term vision of sending a human mission to Mars in 2033.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> Laid out in 2001, the project's proposed timeline would begin with robotic exploration, a <a href="/wiki/Proof_of_concept" title="Proof of concept">proof of concept</a> simulation of sustaining humans on Mars, and eventually a crewed mission; however, objections from the participating nations of ESA and other delays have put the timeline into question. Nevertheless, a spawn of this programme, <a href="/wiki/ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a>, delivered an orbiter to Mars in 2016
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span id="ESA.2FRussia_plan_.282002.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="ESA/Russia_plan_(2002)">ESA/Russia plan (2002)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: ESA/Russia plan (2002)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>Another proposal for a joint ESA mission with Russia is based on two spacecraft being sent to Mars, one carrying a six-person crew and the other the expedition's supplies. The mission would take about 440 days to complete with three astronauts visiting the surface of the planet for a period of two months. The entire project would cost $20 billion and Russia would contribute 30% of these funds.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="USA_Vision_for_Space_Exploration_.282004.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="USA_Vision_for_Space_Exploration_(2004)">USA Vision for Space Exploration (2004)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: USA Vision for Space Exploration (2004)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">Vision for Space Exploration</a></div>
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<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vsfe_ship.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Vsfe ship.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Vsfe_ship.jpg/220px-Vsfe_ship.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Vsfe_ship.jpg/330px-Vsfe_ship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Vsfe_ship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Vsfe_ship.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div></div></div></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Project_Constellation" class="mw-redirect" title="Project Constellation">Project Constellation</a> included an <a href="/wiki/Orion_Mars_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Orion Mars Mission">Orion Mars Mission</a>.
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(Then United States President) <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> announced an initiative of crewed space exploration on January 14, 2004, known as the <a href="/wiki/Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">Vision for Space Exploration</a>. It included developing preliminary plans for a lunar outpost by 2012<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> and establishing an outpost by 2020. Precursor missions that would help develop the needed technology during the 2010–2020 decade were tentatively outlined by Adringa and others.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> On September 24, 2007, Michael Griffin, then NASA Administrator, hinted that NASA may be able to launch a human mission to Mars by 2037.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> The needed funds were to be generated by <a href="/wiki/Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">diverting $11 billion</a><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> from space science missions to the vision for human exploration.
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</p><p>NASA has also discussed plans to launch Mars missions from the Moon to reduce traveling costs.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Mars_Society_Germany_.E2.80.93_European_Mars_Mission_.28EMM.29_.282005.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mars_Society_Germany_–_European_Mars_Mission_(EMM)_(2005)">Mars Society Germany – European Mars Mission (EMM) (2005)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mars Society Germany – European Mars Mission (EMM) (2005)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The Mars Society Germany proposed a crewed Mars mission using several launches of an improved heavy-lift version of the <a href="/wiki/Ariane_5" title="Ariane 5">Ariane 5</a>. Roughly 5 launches would be required to send a crew of 5 on a 1200 days mission, with a payload of 120,000 kg (260,000 lb). Total project was estimated to cost 10 to 15 billion <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euros</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-astronautix.com_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astronautix.com-68">[68]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="China_National_Space_Administration_.28CNSA.29_.282006.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="China_National_Space_Administration_(CNSA)_(2006)">China National Space Administration (CNSA) (2006)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: China National Space Administration (CNSA) (2006)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program#Mission_to_Mars_and_beyond" title="Chinese space program">Chinese space program § Mission to Mars and beyond</a></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Sun_Laiyan" title="Sun Laiyan">Sun Laiyan</a>, administrator of the <a href="/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration" title="China National Space Administration">China National Space Administration</a>, said on July 20, 2006 that China would start deep space exploration focusing on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> over the next five years, during the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Five-Year_Plan_(People%27s_Republic_of_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleventh Five-Year Plan (People's Republic of China)">Eleventh Five-Year Plan</a> (2006–2010) Program period.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> The first uncrewed Mars exploration program could take place between 2014–2033, followed by a crewed phase in 2040–2060 in which crew members would land on Mars and return home.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mars_500" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars 500">Mars 500</a> study of 2011 prepared for this crewed mission.
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</p>
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<h4><span id="The_One-Way_Trip_Option_.282006.29.3B_Mars_to_Stay_.282006.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="The_One-Way_Trip_Option_(2006);_Mars_to_Stay_(2006)">The One-Way Trip Option (2006); Mars to Stay (2006)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: The One-Way Trip Option (2006); Mars to Stay (2006)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_to_Stay" title="Mars to Stay">Mars to Stay</a></div>
|
||
<p>The idea of a one-way trip to Mars has been proposed several times. Space activist Bruce Mackenzie, for example, proposed a one-way trip to Mars in a presentation "One Way to Mars – a Permanent Settlement on the First Mission" at the 1998 <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Development_Conference" title="International Space Development Conference">International Space Development Conference</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> arguing that since the mission could be done with less difficulty and expense without a return to Earth, the first mission to Mars should be a settlement, not a visit. In 2006, former NASA engineer James C. McLane III proposed a scheme to initially colonize Mars via a one-way trip by only one human. Papers discussing this concept appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Space_Review" title="The Space Review">The Space Review</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's Magazine</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> <i>SEARCH Magazine</i><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Krauss_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krauss-75">[75]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>Former <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> astronaut <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> is a particularly outspoken promoter who has suggested in numerous forums "Forget the Moon, Let's Head to Mars!"<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> In June 2013, Aldrin wrote an opinion, published in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, supporting a crewed mission to Mars and which viewed the Moon "not as a destination but more a point of departure . . . "<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20130613_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20130613-77">[77]</a></sup> In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Institute_of_Technology" title="Florida Institute of Technology">Florida Institute of Technology</a>, presented a "master plan" for NASA consideration proposing astronauts with a "tour of duty of ten years" colonize Mars before the year 2040.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20150827_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20150827-78">[78]</a></sup>
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</p>
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||
<h4><span id="NASA_Design_Reference_Mission_5.0_.282007.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="NASA_Design_Reference_Mission_5.0_(2007)">NASA Design Reference Mission 5.0 (2007)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: NASA Design Reference Mission 5.0 (2007)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>NASA released initial details of the latest version conceptual level human Mars exploration architecture in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/leag2007/presentations/20071001.drake.pdf">this</a> presentation. The study further developed concepts developed in previous NASA DRM and updated it to more current launchers and technology.
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</p>
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||
<h4><span id="NASA_Design_Reference_Mission_Architecture_5.0_.282009.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="NASA_Design_Reference_Mission_Architecture_5.0_(2009)">NASA Design Reference Mission Architecture 5.0 (2009)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: NASA Design Reference Mission Architecture 5.0 (2009)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg/220px-Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="98" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg/330px-Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg/440px-Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1438" data-file-height="642" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars-manned-mission-NASA-V5.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Concept for NASA's Design Reference Mission Architecture 5.0 (2009)</div></div></div>
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<p>NASA released an updated version of NASA DRM 5.0 in early 2009, featuring use of the <a href="/wiki/Ares_V" title="Ares V">Ares V</a> launcher, <a href="/wiki/Orion_(Constellation_program)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orion (Constellation program)">Orion CEV</a>, and updated mission planning. In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/leag2007/presentations/20071001.drake.pdf">this</a> document.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup>
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</p>
|
||
<h4><span id="NASA_Austere_Human_Missions_to_Mars_.282009.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="NASA_Austere_Human_Missions_to_Mars_(2009)">NASA <a href="/wiki/Austere_Human_Missions_to_Mars" title="Austere Human Missions to Mars">Austere Human Missions to Mars</a> (2009)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: NASA Austere Human Missions to Mars (2009)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>Extrapolated from the DRMA 5.0, plans for a crewed Mars expedition with chemical propulsion. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/41431/1/09-3642.pdf">Austere Human Missions to Mars</a>
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</p>
|
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<h4><span id="USA.27s_Mars_orbit_by_the_mid-2030s_.282010.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="USA's_Mars_orbit_by_the_mid-2030s_(2010)">USA's Mars orbit by the mid-2030s (2010)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: USA's Mars orbit by the mid-2030s (2010)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>In a <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_space_policy_speech_at_Kennedy_Space_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Barack Obama space policy speech at Kennedy Space Center">major space policy speech</a> at Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, then-U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> predicted a crewed Mars mission to orbit the planet by the mid-2030s, followed by a landing:
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</p>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r856303468">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By the mid-2030s, I believe we can send humans to orbit Mars and return them safely to Earth. And a landing on Mars will follow. And I expect to be around to see it.
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</p></blockquote>
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<p>The United States Congress has mostly approved a new direction for NASA that includes canceling Bush's planned return to the Moon by 2020 and instead proposes asteroid exploration in 2025 (<a href="/wiki/Asteroid_Redirect_Mission" title="Asteroid Redirect Mission">Asteroid Redirect Mission</a>) and orbiting Mars in the 2030s.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> The Asteroid Redirect Mission was cancelled in June 2017 and "closed out" in September of the same year.
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Martian_Frontier_.282007.E2.80.932011.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Martian_Frontier_(2007–2011)">Martian Frontier (2007–2011)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Martian Frontier (2007–2011)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>Mars 500, the longest high fidelity spaceflight simulation, ran from 2007 to 2011 in Russia and was an experiment to assess the feasibility of crewed missions to Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Russian_mission_proposals_.282011.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Russian_mission_proposals_(2011)">Russian mission proposals (2011)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Russian mission proposals (2011)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>A number of Mars mission concepts and proposals have been put forth by <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> scientists. Stated dates were for a launch sometime between 2016 and 2020. The Mars probe would carry a crew of four to five cosmonauts, who would spend close to two years in space.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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</p><p>In late 2011, Russian and European space agencies successfully completed the ground-based <a href="/wiki/MARS-500" title="MARS-500">MARS-500</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> The biomedical experiment simulating crewed flight to Mars was completed in Russia in July 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="2-4-2_concept_.282011.E2.80.932012.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="2-4-2_concept_(2011–2012)">2-4-2 concept (2011–2012)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 2-4-2 concept (2011–2012)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>In 2011, Jean-Marc Salotti published a new proposal for a crewed Mars mission, with a release in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> The 2-4-2 concept is based on a reduction of the crew size to only 2 astronauts and the duplication of the entire mission. There are 2 astronauts in each space vehicle, there are 4 on the surface of Mars and there are 2 once again in each return vehicle. In addition, at every step of the mission, there are 2 astronauts ready to help the 2 others (2 for 2). This architecture simplifies the entry, descent and landing procedures, which are known to be very risky, thanks to a significant reduction of the size of the landing vehicles. It also avoids the assembly of huge vehicles in LEO. The author claims that his proposal is much cheaper than the NASA reference mission without compromising the risks and can be undertaken before 2030.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span id="Boeing_Conceptual_Space_Vehicle_Architecture_.282012.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Boeing_Conceptual_Space_Vehicle_Architecture_(2012)">Boeing Conceptual Space Vehicle Architecture (2012)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Boeing Conceptual Space Vehicle Architecture (2012)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>In 2012, a conceptual architecture was published by <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance" title="United Launch Alliance">United Launch Alliance</a>, and RAL Space in England, laying out a possible design for a crewed Mars mission.<sup id="cite_ref-mars_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-86">[86]</a></sup> Components of the architecture include various spacecraft for the Earth-to-Mars journey, landing, and surface stay as well as return.<sup id="cite_ref-mars_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-86">[86]</a></sup> Some features include several uncrewed cargo landers assembled into a base on the surface of Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-mars_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-86">[86]</a></sup> The crew would land at this base in the "Mars Personnel Lander", which could also take them back into Mars orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-mars_86-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-86">[86]</a></sup> The design for the crewed interplanetary spacecraft included artificial gravity and an artificial magnetic field for radiation protection.<sup id="cite_ref-mars_86-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-86">[86]</a></sup> Overall, the architecture was modular and to allow for incremental R&D.<sup id="cite_ref-mars_86-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-86">[86]</a></sup>
|
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</p>
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||
<h4><span id="Mars_One_.282012.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mars_One_(2012)">Mars One (2012)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Mars One (2012)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_One" title="Mars One">Mars One</a></div>
|
||
<p>In 2012, a <a href="/wiki/The_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="The Netherlands">Dutch</a> entrepreneur group began raising funds for a human Mars base to be established in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-adario_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adario-87">[87]</a></sup> The mission was intended to be primarily a one-way trip to Mars. Astronaut applications were invited from the public all over the world, for a fee.
|
||
</p><p>The initial concept included an orbiter and small robotic lander in 2018, followed by a rover in 2020, and the base components in 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-adario_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adario-87">[87]</a></sup> The first crew of four astronauts were to land on Mars in 2025. Then, every two years, a new crew of four would arrive. Financing was intended to come from selling the broadcasting rights of the entire training and of the flight as a <a href="/wiki/Reality_television" title="Reality television">reality television</a> show, and that money would be used to contract for all hardware and launch services. In April 2015, Mars One's CEO Bas Lansdorp admitted that their 12-year plan for landing humans on Mars by 2027 is mostly fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> The company went bankrupt in January 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span id="Inspiration_Mars_Foundation_.282013.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Inspiration_Mars_Foundation_(2013)">Inspiration Mars Foundation (2013)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Inspiration Mars Foundation (2013)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars Foundation</a></div>
|
||
<p>In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars Foundation</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Tito" title="Dennis Tito">Dennis Tito</a> revealed plans of a crewed mission to fly by Mars in 2018 with support from NASA.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup> NASA refused to fund the mission.
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</p>
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<h4><span id="Boeing_Affordable_Mission_.282014.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Boeing_Affordable_Mission_(2014)">Boeing Affordable Mission (2014)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Boeing Affordable Mission (2014)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>On December 2, 2014, NASA's Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Operations Mission Director Jason Crusan and Deputy Associate Administrator for Programs James Reuthner announced tentative support for the <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> "Affordable Mars Mission Design"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> including radiation shielding, centrifugal artificial gravity, in-transit consumable resupply, and a lander which can return.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> Reuthner suggested that if adequate funding was forthcoming, the proposed mission would be expected in the early 2030s.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="NASA.27s_Journey_to_Mars:_Pioneering_Next_Steps_in_Space_Exploration_.282015.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="NASA's_Journey_to_Mars:_Pioneering_Next_Steps_in_Space_Exploration_(2015)">NASA's Journey to Mars: Pioneering Next Steps in Space Exploration (2015)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: NASA's Journey to Mars: Pioneering Next Steps in Space Exploration (2015)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg/220px-14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg/330px-14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg/440px-14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:14-2290-SpaceLaunchSystem-AfterLaunch-20140827.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artist's rendering of a Block 1 SLS</div></div></div>
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<table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><img alt="Ambox current red.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2018</span>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<p>On October 8, 2015, NASA published its strategy for human exploration and colonization of Mars. The concept operates through three distinct phases leading up to fully sustained colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
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</p><p>The first stage, already underway, is the "Earth Reliant" phase. This phase continues using the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> until 2024; validating deep space technologies and studying the effects of long duration space missions on the human body.
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</p><p>The second stage, "Proving Ground," moves away from Earth reliance and ventures into <a href="/wiki/Cislunar_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Cislunar space">cislunar space</a> for most of its tasks. The proposed <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Orbital_Platform-Gateway" title="Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway">Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway</a> would test deep space habitation facilities, and validate capabilities required for human exploration of Mars.
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</p><p>Finally, phase three is the transition to independence from Earth resources. The "Earth Independent" phase includes long term missions on the lunar surface with surface habitats that only require routine maintenance, and the harvesting of Martian resources for fuel, water, and building materials. NASA is still aiming for human missions to Mars in the 2030s, though Earth independence could take decades longer.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup>
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</p><p>In November 2015, Administrator Bolden of NASA reaffirmed the goal of sending humans to Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-bolden_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolden-97">[97]</a></sup> He laid out 2030 as the date of a crewed surface landing, and noted that planned 2020 Mars rover would support the human mission.<sup id="cite_ref-bolden_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolden-97">[97]</a></sup> Also discussed was the use of robotics to prepare an underground habitat for the arriving people.<sup id="cite_ref-bolden_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolden-97">[97]</a></sup> He noted the advantages of living underground on Mars, especially that it eliminates the need to construct above ground shielding.<sup id="cite_ref-bolden_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolden-97">[97]</a></sup> The underground base would be prepared in advance by an armada of robots.<sup id="cite_ref-bolden_97-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolden-97">[97]</a></sup> Top surface activity was not excluded however, just that the crew would "probably live underground for the most part".<sup id="cite_ref-bolden_97-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolden-97">[97]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span id="SpaceX_Mars_transportation_infrastructure_.282016-.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="SpaceX_Mars_transportation_infrastructure_(2016-)">SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure (2016-)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure (2016-)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Mars_transportation_infrastructure" title="SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure">SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure</a></div>
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<p>Since 2016, <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a> publicly announced a comprehensive vision to begin the colonization of Mars, by proposing to develop a high-capacity <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Mars_transportation_infrastructure" title="SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure">transportation infrastructure</a>.
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||
</p>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="ITS_launch_vehicle">ITS launch vehicle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: ITS launch vehicle">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ITS_launch_vehicle" title="ITS launch vehicle">ITS launch vehicle</a></div>
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<p>In September 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronautical_Congress" title="International Astronautical Congress">International Astronautical Congress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a> announced the <a href="/wiki/ITS_launch_vehicle" title="ITS launch vehicle">ITS launch vehicle</a> design (informally discussed earlier as the Mars Colonial Transporter), that comprised a large reusable booster topped by a spaceship or a tanker for <a href="/wiki/In-orbit_refueling" class="mw-redirect" title="In-orbit refueling">in-orbit refueling</a>, as well as a <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Mars_propellant_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="SpaceX Mars propellant plant">propellant plant to be built on Mars</a>, at a base referred to as <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Mars_transportation_infrastructure#Mars_settlement_concept" title="SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure">Mars Base Alpha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gw20161023_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gw20161023-98">[98]</a></sup>
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The aspirational objective is to advance the technology and infrastructure such that the first humans to Mars could potentially depart as early as 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-sn20161010_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sn20161010-99">[99]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sfi20160927_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfi20160927-100">[100]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20160927_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20160927-101">[101]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-musk@smuHK20160126_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-musk@smuHK20160126-102">[102]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
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||
<h5><span id="BFR_.28Big_Falcon_Rocket.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="BFR_(Big_Falcon_Rocket)">BFR (Big Falcon Rocket)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: BFR (Big Falcon Rocket)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/BFR_(rocket)" title="BFR (rocket)">BFR (rocket)</a></div>
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||
<p>On 29 September 2017, Elon Musk announced an updated vehicle design for the Mars mission at the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronautical_Congress" title="International Astronautical Congress">International Astronautical Congress</a>. The replacement vehicle for this mission is called BFR (Big Falcon Rocket). BFR will provide the capability for on-orbit activity like satellite delivery, servicing the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Moon" title="Exploration of the Moon">Moon missions</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Mars missions</a>. There are two phases for the first human mission to Mars via BFR:
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||
</p>
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||
<ul><li>In 2022, at least 2 BFR cargo vehicles will land on Mars.
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||
<ul><li>They will confirm water resources and identify hazards.</li>
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||
<li>They will place power, mining and life support infrastructure for future missions.</li></ul></li>
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<li>In 2024, 2 BFR crew vehicles will take the first people to Mars.
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||
<ul><li>2 BFR cargo vehicles will bring more equipment and supplies.</li>
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||
<li>They will place a propellant production plant.</li>
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||
<li>They will build up a base to prepare for expansion.</li></ul></li></ul>
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<p>The BFR is currently under construction, with sub-orbital flight testing expected in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-spacenews.com_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spacenews.com-105">[105]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
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||
<h4><span id="Mars_Base_Camp_.282016.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mars_Base_Camp_(2016)">Mars Base Camp (2016)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Mars Base Camp (2016)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Mars_Base_Camp" title="Mars Base Camp">Mars Base Camp</a> (MBC), an American spacecraft concept that proposes to send astronauts to Mars orbit as early as 2028. The vehicle concept, developed by Lockheed Martin,<sup id="cite_ref-mars-base-camp_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mars-base-camp-106">[106]</a></sup> would utilize both future and heritage technology as well as the <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion MPCV</a> built by NASA.
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||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span id="Deep_Space_Transport_.282017.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Deep_Space_Transport_(2017)">Deep Space Transport (2017)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Deep Space Transport (2017)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Deep_Space_Transport.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Deep_Space_Transport.jpg/220px-Deep_Space_Transport.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Deep_Space_Transport.jpg/330px-Deep_Space_Transport.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Deep_Space_Transport.jpg/440px-Deep_Space_Transport.jpg 2x" data-file-width="937" data-file-height="695" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Deep_Space_Transport.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Deep Space Transport</div></div></div>
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||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deep_Space_Transport" title="Deep Space Transport">Deep Space Transport</a></div>
|
||
<p>The Deep Space Transport (DST) is a spacecraft meant to be launched on top of NASA's <a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">SLS</a> launch vehicle in 2027. It was announced by NASA in March 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> It is to dock with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lunar_Orbital_Platform_Gateway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lunar Orbital Platform Gateway (page does not exist)">Lunar Orbital Platform Gateway</a> (LOP-G) station, which would be in cis-lunar space after its construction, in 2027. Current plans show it to be sent with a crew of 4 to Mars in 2033. It would not, however, land, but merely remain in Martian orbit until there is a launch window for a return. The mission is expected to take about 2 years if all missions in the DSG and DST from 2021–2030 are successful. This mission would use the SLS rocket for launches, and the Orion MPCV to transport the crew to and from the Earth and the DSG and DST.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_intentions_by_nations_and_space_agencies">Current intentions by nations and space agencies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Current intentions by nations and space agencies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg/220px-ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg/330px-ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg/440px-ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="456" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS-Derived_Deep_Space_Habitat_with_CPS.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artist's rendering of the planned Orion/DSH/Cryogenic Propulsion Module assembly.</div></div></div>
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||
<p>A number of nations and organizations have long-term intentions to send humans to Mars.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">United States</a> has several robotic missions currently exploring Mars, with a sample-return planned for the future. The <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle</a> (MPCV) is intended to serve as the launch/splashdown crew delivery vehicle, with a <a href="/wiki/Deep_Space_Habitat" title="Deep Space Habitat">Deep Space Habitat</a> module providing additional living-space for the 16-month-long journey. The first crewed Mars Mission, which will include sending astronauts to Mars, orbiting Mars, and a return to Earth, is scheduled for the 2030s.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> Technology development for US government missions to Mars is underway, but there is no well-funded approach to bring the conceptual project to completion with human landings on Mars by the mid-2030s, the stated objective.<sup id="cite_ref-ars20161012_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ars20161012-113">[113]</a></sup> NASA is under presidential orders to land humans on Mars by 2033, and NASA-funded engineers are studying a way to build potential human habitats there by producing bricks from pressurized Martian soil.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup></li>
|
||
<li>The <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> has a long-term goal to send humans but has not yet built a crewed spacecraft. It has sent robotic probes like <a href="/wiki/ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a> in 2016 and plans to send the next probe in 2020.</li></ul>
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||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_(201503120102HQ).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_%28201503120102HQ%29.jpg/220px-Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_%28201503120102HQ%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_%28201503120102HQ%29.jpg/330px-Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_%28201503120102HQ%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_%28201503120102HQ%29.jpg/440px-Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_%28201503120102HQ%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3939" data-file-height="2844" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Expedition_42_Soyuz_TMA-14M_Landing_(201503120102HQ).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A Soyuz landing on Earth in 2015</div></div></div>
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||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">India</a> successfully placed an uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Mars_Orbiter_Mission" title="Mars Orbiter Mission">Mars Orbiter Mission</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Mangalyaan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangalyaan">Mangalyaan</a>) satellite in Mars orbit in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/ISRO" class="mw-redirect" title="ISRO">ISRO</a> plans a larger follow-up mission called <a href="/wiki/Mangalyaan_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangalyaan 2"><i>Mangalyaan</i> 2</a> between 2018 and 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-econtimes20141112_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-econtimes20141112-116">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> This mission will likely consist of a <a href="/wiki/Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">lander</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">Mars rover</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ibn20141030_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibn20141030-118">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup> No plans for an Indian human mission to Mars have been made public.</li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Japan</a> has sent one robotic mission to Mars in 1998, the <a href="/wiki/Nozomi_(spacecraft)" title="Nozomi (spacecraft)">Nozomi</a>, but it failed to achieve Mars orbit. <a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">JAXA</a> has proposed a rover mission called <a href="/wiki/MELOS" title="MELOS">MELOS</a> for an engineering demonstration of precision landing, and to look for possible biosignatures on Mars in 2020 or 2022. No plans for a Japanese human mission to Mars have been made public.</li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">China</a>'s first attempted mission to Mars, the <a href="/wiki/Yinghuo-1" title="Yinghuo-1">Yinghuo-1</a> space probe, was lost with Russia's sample return mission to <a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fobos-Grunt" title="Fobos-Grunt">Fobos-Grunt</a> in 2011–2012. China plans to develop and launch an orbiter, lander and rover to <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> in July or August 2020<sup id="cite_ref-reuters20160824_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters20160824-120">[120]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup> with a <a href="/wiki/Long_March_5" title="Long March 5">Long March 5</a> heavy lift rocket.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_2015_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones_2015-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> A crewed phase is planned for the 2040–2060 timeframe.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Russia" title="Government of Russia">Russia</a> plans to send humans in the 2040–2045 timeframe.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_intentions_by_private_companies">Current intentions by private companies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Current intentions by private companies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>United States-based launch company <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a> intends to establish a Mars base in the 2020s, using the <a href="/wiki/BFR_(rocket)" title="BFR (rocket)">BFR</a> fully reusable launch system. Two robotic cargo flights are planned to be launched in 2022 to deliver a massive array of solar panels,<sup id="cite_ref-Rayne_2018_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayne_2018-127">[127]</a></sup> mining equipment,<sup id="cite_ref-Crunch_2017_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crunch_2017-128">[128]</a></sup> as well as deliver surface vehicles, food and life support infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-Wooster_2018_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wooster_2018-129">[129]</a></sup> In 2024 four more BFR landers will follow: two robotic cargo flights, and two crewed flights will be launched to setup the propellant production plant, deploy the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">solar park</a>, landing pads, and assemble <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wooster_2018_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wooster_2018-129">[129]</a></sup> Each landed mass will be at least 100 tons of usable payload, in addition to the spaceship's <a href="/wiki/Dry_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry mass">dry mass</a> of 85 tons.<sup id="cite_ref-Wooster_2018_129-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wooster_2018-129">[129]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>The BFR is currently under construction, and is planned to start sub-orbital flight testing in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-spacenews.com_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spacenews.com-105">[105]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Technological_innovations_and_hurdles">Technological innovations and hurdles</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Technological innovations and hurdles">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg/220px-Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg/330px-Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg/440px-Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3240" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Food_Production_-_Bisected.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Depiction of plants growing in a Mars base. NASA plans to grow plants for <a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">space food</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup></div></div></div>
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||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Robonaut_2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Robonaut_2.jpg/220px-Robonaut_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Robonaut_2.jpg/330px-Robonaut_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Robonaut_2.jpg/440px-Robonaut_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Robonaut_2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>NASA has stated that robots will prepare an underground base for a human surface mission.<sup id="cite_ref-bolden_97-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bolden-97">[97]</a></sup></div></div></div>
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<p>Significant technological hurdles need to be overcome for human spaceflight to Mars.
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</p><p>Entry into the thin and shallow Martian atmosphere will pose significant difficulties with re-entry and for a spacecraft of the weight needed to carry humans, along with life support, supplies and other equipment. Should a heat shield be used, it would need to be very large. Retro rockets could be used, but would add significant further weight.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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</p><p>A return mission to Mars will need to land a rocket to carry crew off the surface. Launch requirements mean that this rocket would be significantly smaller than an Earth-to-orbit rocket. Mars-to-orbit launch can also be achieved in single stage. Despite this, landing an ascent rocket on Mars will be difficult. Reentry for a large rocket will be difficult.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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</p><p>In 2014 NASA proposed the Mars Ecopoiesis Test Bed.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<dl><dt>Intravenous fluid</dt></dl>
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<p>One of the medical supplies that might be needed is a considerable mass of <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous fluid">intravenous fluid</a>, which is mainly water but contains other substances so it can be added directly to the human blood stream. If it could be created on the spot from existing water, this would reduce mass requirements. A prototype for this capability was tested on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> in 2010. <sup id="cite_ref-ivegen_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ivegen-132">[132]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<dl><dt>Breathing gases</dt></dl>
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<p>While it is possible for humans to breathe pure oxygen, usually additional gases like nitrogen are included in the breathing mix. One possibility is to take in-situ <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">atmosphere of Mars</a>; however, they are hard to separate from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-gas_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gas-133">[133]</a></sup> As a result, a Mars habitat may use 40% argon, 40% nitrogen, and 20% oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-gas_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gas-133">[133]</a></sup>
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</p><p>An idea for keeping carbon dioxide out of the breathing air is to use re-usable amine bead carbon dioxide scrubbers.<sup id="cite_ref-spectrum.ieee.org_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spectrum.ieee.org-134">[134]</a></sup> While one carbon dioxide scrubber filters the astronaut's air, the other is vented to the Mars atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-spectrum.ieee.org_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spectrum.ieee.org-134">[134]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Precursor_missions">Precursor missions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Precursor missions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Some missions may be considered a "Mission to Mars" in their own right, or they may only be one step in a more in-depth program. An example of this is missions to Mars' moons, or flyby missions.
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Crewed_flyby">Crewed flyby</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Crewed flyby">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Inspiration Mars">Inspiration Mars</a>, which could be compared to the <a href="/wiki/Manned_Venus_Flyby" class="mw-redirect" title="Manned Venus Flyby">Manned Venus Flyby</a> (NASA) mission proposal of the 1970s, but for Mars.
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Missions_to_Deimos_or_Phobos">Missions to Deimos or Phobos</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Missions to Deimos or Phobos">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>Many Mars mission concepts propose precursor missions to the moons of Mars, for example a sample return mission to the Mars moon Phobos<sup id="cite_ref-authors.library.caltech.edu_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-authors.library.caltech.edu-135">[135]</a></sup> – not quite Mars, but perhaps a convenient stepping stone to an eventual Martian surface mission. Lockheed Martin, as part of their "Stepping stones to Mars" project, called the "Red Rocks Project", proposed to explore Mars robotically from Deimos.<sup id="cite_ref-footstepstomars_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-footstepstomars-50">[50]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Use of fuel produced from water resources on Phobos or Deimos has also been proposed.
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mars_sample_return_missions">Mars sample return missions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Mars sample return missions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Scim_br.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Scim_br.jpg/220px-Scim_br.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Scim_br.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="252" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Scim_br.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artist concept of SCIM gathering a sample of the Martian atmosphere.</div></div></div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg/220px-Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg/330px-Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg/440px-Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="996" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_sample_returnjpl.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Sample return mission concept</div></div></div>
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<p>An uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Mars_sample_return_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars sample return mission">Mars sample return mission</a> (MSR) has sometimes been considered to be an essential precursor to crewed missions to Mars' surface by the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-esa.int_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esa.int-138">[138]</a></sup> The ESA called a sample return "essential" and said it could bridge the gap between robotic and human missions to Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-esa.int_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esa.int-138">[138]</a></sup> An example of a Mars sample return mission is <a href="/wiki/Sample_Collection_for_Investigation_of_Mars" title="Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars">Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars</a> (SCIM).<sup id="cite_ref-USRA-2008_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USRA-2008-139">[139]</a></sup> Mars sample return was the highest priority Flagship Mission proposed for NASA by the <i>Planetary Decadal Survey 2013–2022: The Future of Planetary Science</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup> However, such missions have been hampered by complexity and expense, with one ESA proposal involving no less than five different uncrewed spacecraft.<sup id="cite_ref-ESA_–_Mars_Sample_Return_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESA_–_Mars_Sample_Return-141">[141]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Sample return plans raise the concern, however remote, that an infectious agent could be brought to Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-ESA_–_Mars_Sample_Return_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESA_–_Mars_Sample_Return-141">[141]</a></sup> Regardless, a basic set of guidelines for extraterrestrial sample return have been laid out depending on the source of sample (e.g. asteroid, Moon, Mars surface, etc.)<sup id="cite_ref-congrexprojects.com_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-congrexprojects.com-142">[142]</a></sup>
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</p><p>At the dawn of the 21st century, NASA crafted four potential pathways to Mars human missions.<sup id="cite_ref-marsd_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marsd-143">[143]</a></sup> Of those four, three included a Mars sample return as a prerequisite to human landing; however one did not.<sup id="cite_ref-marsd_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marsd-143">[143]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Crewed_orbital_missions">Crewed orbital missions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Crewed orbital missions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_A._Landis" title="Geoffrey A. Landis">Landis</a><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> and Lupisella proposed to explore Mars via <a href="/wiki/Telepresence" title="Telepresence">telepresence</a> from human astronauts in orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-lupisella_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lupisella-145">[145]</a></sup>
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</p><p>A similar idea was the proposed "Human Exploration using Real-time Robotic Operations" (HERRO) mission.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Another proposed mission was the Russian <a href="/wiki/Mars_Piloted_Orbital_Station" title="Mars Piloted Orbital Station">Mars Piloted Orbital Station</a>.
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</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright" style="margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px">
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<ul style="display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold">
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<li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mars_Hubble.jpg/28px-Mars_Hubble.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mars_Hubble.jpg/42px-Mars_Hubble.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mars_Hubble.jpg/56px-Mars_Hubble.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mars" title="Portal:Mars">Mars portal</a></span></li>
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<li style="display:table-row"><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/28px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/42px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/56px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span><span style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight portal</a></span></li></ul></div>
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<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_gravity" title="Artificial gravity">Artificial gravity</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Delta-v_budget#Delta-vs_between_Earth,_Moon_and_Mars" title="Delta-v budget">Delta-<i>v</i> budget between Earth, Moon and Mars</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Exploration of Mars</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary spaceflight</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">Life on Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_analog_habitat" title="Mars analog habitat">Mars analog habitat</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Design_Reference_Mission" title="Mars Design Reference Mission">Mars Design Reference Mission</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Nuclear propulsion</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 29em; -webkit-column-width: 29em; column-width: 29em; list-style-type: decimal;">
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<ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-portree2001-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-portree2001_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-portree2001_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-portree2001_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-portree2001_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-portree2001_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David S. F. Portree, <i>Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000,</i> NASA Monographs in Aerospace History Series, Number 21, February 2001. Available as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/monograph21/humans_to_Mars.htm">NASA SP-2001-4521</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-portree2001window-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-portree2001window_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-portree2001window_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Page 18-19 in Chapter 3 of David S. F. Portree's <i>Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000,</i> NASA Monographs in Aerospace History Series, Number 21, February 2001. Available as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/monograph21/humans_to_Mars.htm">NASA SP-2001-4521</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Paul D. Wooster; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.524.7644&rep=rep1&type=pdf">"Mission design options for human Mars missions"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mission+design+options+for+human+Mars+missions&rft.au=Paul+D.+Wooster&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fdownload%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.524.7644%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r879151008">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
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<li id="cite_note-portree2001flyby-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-portree2001flyby_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Page 15-16 in Chapter 3 of David S. F. Portree's <i>Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000,</i> NASA Monographs in Aerospace History Series, Number 21, February 2001. Available as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/monograph21/humans_to_Mars.htm">NASA SP-2001-4521</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.planetary.org/multimedia/space-images/charts/hohmann-transfer-orbit.html">"Hohmann transfer orbit diagram"</a>. <i>www.planetary.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.planetary.org&rft.atitle=Hohmann+transfer+orbit+diagram&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.planetary.org%2Fmultimedia%2Fspace-images%2Fcharts%2Fhohmann-transfer-orbit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMAT6680Fa05/Bacon/hohmanntransfers.html">"Homann Transfers"</a>. <i>jwilson.coe.uga.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jwilson.coe.uga.edu&rft.atitle=Homann+Transfers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwilson.coe.uga.edu%2FEMAT6680Fa05%2FBacon%2Fhohmanntransfers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-vonBraun-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vonBraun_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner von Braun, <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LSYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA86">"Popular Science"</a>. <i>google.com</i>. March 1964<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=google.com&rft.atitle=Popular+Science&rft.date=1964-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLSYDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/marsconcepts2012/pdf/4181.pdf">"Folta, et al. - FAST MARS TRANSFERS THROUGH ON-ORBIT STAGING. (2012)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>usra.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=usra.edu&rft.atitle=Folta%2C+et+al.+-+FAST+MARS+TRANSFERS+THROUGH+ON-ORBIT+STAGING.+%282012%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lpi.usra.edu%2Fmeetings%2Fmarsconcepts2012%2Fpdf%2F4181.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Matt Williams – Universe Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://io9.com/making-a-trip-to-mars-cheaper-easier-the-case-for-ba-1675796166">"Making A Trip To Mars Cheaper & Easier: The Case For Ballistic Capture"</a>. <i>io9</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=io9&rft.atitle=Making+A+Trip+To+Mars+Cheaper+%26+Easier%3A+The+Case+For+Ballistic+Capture&rft.au=Matt+Williams+%E2%80%93+Universe+Today&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fio9.com%2Fmaking-a-trip-to-mars-cheaper-easier-the-case-for-ba-1675796166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tdf.it/2006/2/crocco_en.htm">"Crocco"</a>. <i>www.tdf.it</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tdf.it&rft.atitle=Crocco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tdf.it%2F2006%2F2%2Fcrocco_en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-wired.com-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wired.com_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wired.com_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wired.com_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wired.com_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2014/01/to-mars-by-flyby-landing-excursion-mode-flem-1966/">"To Mars by Flyby-Landing Excursion Mode (FLEM) (1966)"</a>. <i>wired.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wired.com&rft.atitle=To+Mars+by+Flyby-Landing+Excursion+Mode+%28FLEM%29+%281966%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2014%2F01%2Fto-mars-by-flyby-landing-excursion-mode-flem-1966%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-spaceflight.nasa.gov-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spaceflight.nasa.gov_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spaceflight.nasa.gov_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/exploration/marsexploration/html/s88_35629.html">"Photo-s88_35629"</a>. <i>spaceflight.nasa.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=spaceflight.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Photo-s88_35629&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspaceflight.nasa.gov%2Fgallery%2Fimages%2Fexploration%2Fmarsexploration%2Fhtml%2Fs88_35629.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ntrs.nasa.gov_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ntrs.nasa.gov_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ntrs.nasa.gov_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050207380.pdf">https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050207380.pdf</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Taylor, Fredric (2010). <i>The Scientific Exploration of Mars</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 306. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82956-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82956-4">978-0-521-82956-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Exploration+of+Mars&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=306&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82956-4&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Fredric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Rai, Saritha (7 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/saritharai/2013/11/07/how-indias-isro-launched-its-mars-mission-at-cut-rate-costs/">"How India Launched Its Mars Mission At Cut-Rate Costs"</a>. <i>Forbes</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=How+India+Launched+Its+Mars+Mission+At+Cut-Rate+Costs&rft.date=2013-11-07&rft.aulast=Rai&rft.aufirst=Saritha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fsaritharai%2F2013%2F11%2F07%2Fhow-indias-isro-launched-its-mars-mission-at-cut-rate-costs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-SCI-20130531a-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20130531a_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20130531a_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Kerr, Richard (31 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/340/6136/1031.summary">"Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>340</b> (6136): 1031. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.340.6136.1031">10.1126/science.340.6136.1031</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23723213">23723213</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Radiation+Will+Make+Astronauts%27+Trip+to+Mars+Even+Riskier&rft.volume=340&rft.issue=6136&rft.pages=1031&rft.date=2013-05-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.340.6136.1031&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23723213&rft.aulast=Kerr&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2F340%2F6136%2F1031.summary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-SCI-20130531b-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20130531b_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20130531b_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Zeitlin, C.; et al. (31 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/340/6136/1080.abstract">"Measurements of Energetic Particle Radiation in Transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>340</b> (6136): 1080–1084. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Sci...340.1080Z">2013Sci...340.1080Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1235989">10.1126/science.1235989</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Measurements+of+Energetic+Particle+Radiation+in+Transit+to+Mars+on+the+Mars+Science+Laboratory&rft.volume=340&rft.issue=6136&rft.pages=1080-1084&rft.date=2013-05-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1235989&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Sci...340.1080Z&rft.au=Zeitlin%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2F340%2F6136%2F1080.abstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NYT-20130530-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20130530_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20130530_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Chang, Kenneth (30 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/31/science/space/data-show-higher-cancer-risk-for-mars-astronauts.html">"Data Point to Radiation Risk for Travelers to Mars"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Data+Point+to+Radiation+Risk+for+Travelers+to+Mars&rft.date=2013-05-30&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F05%2F31%2Fscience%2Fspace%2Fdata-show-higher-cancer-risk-for-mars-astronauts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NYT-20150921-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20150921_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Regis, Ed (September 21, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/21/opinion/lets-not-move-to-mars.html">"Let's Not Move To Mars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 22,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Let%27s+Not+Move+To+Mars&rft.date=2015-09-21&rft.aulast=Regis&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F09%2F21%2Fopinion%2Flets-not-move-to-mars.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18371562">"Model calculations of the particle spectrum of the galactic cosmic ray (GCR) environment : Assessment with ACE/CRIS and MARIE measurements"</a>. <i>inist.fr</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=inist.fr&rft.atitle=Model+calculations+of+the+particle+spectrum+of+the+galactic+cosmic+ray+%28GCR%29+environment+%3A+Assessment+with+ACE%2FCRIS+and+MARIE+measurements&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D18371562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShiga2009" class="citation">Shiga, David (2009-09-16), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20327266.100-too-much-radiation-for-astronauts-to-make-it-to-mars.html">"Too much radiation for astronauts to make it to Mars"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i> (2726)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Too+much+radiation+for+astronauts+to+make+it+to+Mars&rft.issue=2726&rft.date=2009-09-16&rft.aulast=Shiga&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg20327266.100-too-much-radiation-for-astronauts-to-make-it-to-mars.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-WIRED-20140212-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIRED-20140212_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Fong, MD, Kevin (12 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/">"The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+Strange%2C+Deadly+Effects+Mars+Would+Have+on+Your+Body&rft.date=2014-02-12&rft.aulast=Fong%2C+MD&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fopinion%2F2014%2F02%2Fhappens-body-mars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-SN-20130629-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SN-20130629_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Gelling, Cristy (June 29, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/350728/description/Mars_trip_would_deliver_big_radiation_dose">"Mars trip would deliver big radiation dose; Curiosity instrument confirms expectation of major exposures"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_News" title="Science News">Science News</a></i>. <b>183</b> (13): 8<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 8,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+News&rft.atitle=Mars+trip+would+deliver+big+radiation+dose%3B+Curiosity+instrument+confirms+expectation+of+major+exposures&rft.volume=183&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2013-06-29&rft.aulast=Gelling&rft.aufirst=Cristy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Fview%2Fgeneric%2Fid%2F350728%2Fdescription%2FMars_trip_would_deliver_big_radiation_dose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-PHYS-20170930-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PHYS-20170930_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Scott, Jim (30 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2017-09-large-solar-storm-global-aurora.html">"Large solar storm sparks global aurora and doubles radiation levels on the martian surface"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Phys.org" title="Phys.org">Phys.org</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phys.org&rft.atitle=Large+solar+storm+sparks+global+aurora+and+doubles+radiation+levels+on+the+martian+surface&rft.date=2017-09-30&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2017-09-large-solar-storm-global-aurora.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mader-2011-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mader-2011_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Mader, T. H.; et al. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ophsource.org/periodicals/ophtha/article/S0161-6420(11)00564-1/abstractOph">"Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_(journal)" title="Ophthalmology (journal)">Ophthalmology</a></i>. <b>118</b> (10): 2058–2069. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2011.06.021">10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21849212">21849212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Optic+Disc+Edema%2C+Globe+Flattening%2C+Choroidal+Folds%2C+and+Hyperopic+Shifts+Observed+in+Astronauts+after+Long-duration+Space+Flight&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2058-2069&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ophtha.2011.06.021&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21849212&rft.au=Mader%2C+T.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ophsource.org%2Fperiodicals%2Fophtha%2Farticle%2FS0161-6420%2811%2900564-1%2FabstractOph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link since January 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Puiu-20111109-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Puiu-20111109_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Puiu, Tibi (November 9, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/">"Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions"</a>. zmescience.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 9,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Astronauts%27+vision+severely+affected+during+long+space+missions&rft.pub=zmescience.com&rft.date=2011-11-09&rft.aulast=Puiu&rft.aufirst=Tibi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmescience.com%2Fmedicine%2Fastronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-CNN-20120109-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CNN-20120109_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN">"Breaking News Videos, Story Video and Show Clips – CNN.com"</a>. <i>CNN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Breaking+News+Videos%2C+Story+Video+and+Show+Clips+%E2%80%93+CNN.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2Fvideo%2F%23%2Fvideo%2Fus%2F2012%2F02%2F09%2Fpkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horneck and Comet (2006), <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.asr.2005.06.077">10.1016/j.asr.2005.06.077</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehlmann, B. L., et al. (2005), <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2005.01.010">10.1016/j.actaastro.2005.01.010</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rapp et al. (2005) <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FAERO.2005.1559325">10.1109/AERO.2005.1559325</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-groundwatercontamination-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-groundwatercontamination_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-27526981">Queens University Belfast scientist helps NASA Mars project</a> "No-one has yet proved that there is deep groundwater on Mars, but it is plausible as there is certainly surface ice and atmospheric water vapour, so we wouldn't want to contaminate it and make it unusable by the introduction of micro-organisms."</span>
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<li id="cite_note-COSPAR_PLANETARY_PROTECTION_POLICY-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-COSPAR_PLANETARY_PROTECTION_POLICY_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2012/05/04/COSPAR_Planetary_Protection_Policy_v3-24-11.pdf">COSPAR PLANETARY PROTECTION POLICY</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130306111646/https://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2012/05/04/COSPAR_Planetary_Protection_Policy_v3-24-11.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-03-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (20 October 2002; As Amended to 24 March 2011)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11937&page=95">"An Astrobiology Strategy for the Exploration of Mars"</a>. <i>nap.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nap.edu&rft.atitle=An+Astrobiology+Strategy+for+the+Exploration+of+Mars&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D11937%26page%3D95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-biospherescollide-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-biospherescollide_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/when_biospheres_collide_detail.html#.U_uVh_mwJcQ">When Biospheres Collide – a history of NASA's Planetary Protection Programs</a>, Michael Meltzer, May 31, 2012, see Chapter 7, Return to Mars – final section: "Should we do away with human missions to sensitive targets"</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, James E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/ppw2015/pdf/1010.pdf">"Planetary Protection Knowledge Gaps for Human Extraterrestrial Missions: Goals and Scope." (2015)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10360&page=37">Safe on Mars page 37</a> "Martian biological contamination may occur if astronauts breathe contaminated dust or if they contact material that is introduced into their habitat. If an astronaut becomes contaminated or infected, it is conceivable that he or she could transmit Martian biological entities or even disease to fellow astronauts, or introduce such entities into the biosphere upon returning to Earth. A contaminated vehicle or item of equipment returned to Earth could also be a source of contamination."</span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/exploration/marsexploration/html/s86_25375.html">"Photo-s86_25375"</a>. <i>nasa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Photo-s86_25375&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspaceflight.nasa.gov%2Fgallery%2Fimages%2Fexploration%2Fmarsexploration%2Fhtml%2Fs86_25375.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-platoff-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-platoff_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-platoff_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-platoff_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-platoff_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annie Platoff, <i>Eyes on the Red Planet: Human Mars Mission Planning, 1952–1970,</i> (1999); available as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/CR-2001-208928.pdf">NASA/CR-2001-2089280</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531192655/http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/CR-2001-208928.pdf">Archived</a> 2010-05-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (July 2001)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wernher von Braun, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mars_Project" title="The Mars Project">The Mars Project</a>,</i> University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, 1962</span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wernher von Braun, "The Next 20 Years of Interplanetary Exploration," <i>Astronautics & Aeronautics,</i> November 1965, pp 24-34.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Wade, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/craft/vonn1952.htm">Von Braun Mars Expedition – 1952</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100116233913/http://astronautix.com/craft/vonn1952.htm">Archived</a> 2010-01-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/">Encyclopedia Astronautica</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100116234605/http://astronautix.com/craft/vonn1956.htm">"Von Braun Mars Expedition – 1956"</a>. <i>astronautix.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/craft/vonn1956.htm">the original</a> on 16 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=astronautix.com&rft.atitle=Von+Braun+Mars+Expedition+%E2%80%93+1956&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astronautix.com%2Fcraft%2Fvonn1956.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/disney_article.html">"The Disney-Von Braun Collaboration and Its Influence on Space Exploration" by Mike Wright</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Dyson, George (2002). <i>Project Orion: The Atomic Spaceship 1957-1965</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-140-27732-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-140-27732-3">0-140-27732-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Project+Orion%3A+The+Atomic+Spaceship+1957-1965&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-140-27732-3&rft.aulast=Dyson&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-dixon-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dixon_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Franklin Dixon, "Summary Presentation: Study of a Manned Mars Excursion Module," in <i>Proceedings of the Symposium on Manned Planetary Missions: 1963/1964 Status</i>, NASA TM X-53049 (1964).</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wernher von Braun, "Manned Mars Landing Presentation to the Space Task Group," presentation materials, August 1969 (referenced by Portree<i>, 2001 op cit</i>.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Artemis Westenberg (15 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPYYw8Qcy-o&t=5m47s">"Von Braun about Mars.wmv"</a> – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Von+Braun+about+Mars.wmv&rft.date=2012-07-15&rft.au=Artemis+Westenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DYPYYw8Qcy-o%26t%3D5m47s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Penelope J. Boston, ed., <i>AAS Science and Technology Series Volume 57, Proceedings of the Case for Mars I</i>, 1984 (second printing 1987), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87703-197-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87703-197-5">0-87703-197-5</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher P. McKay, ed., <i>AAS Science and Technology Series Volume 62, Proceedings of the Case for Mars II</i>, 1985 (second printing 1988) 730p. Hard cover: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87703-219-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87703-219-X">0-87703-219-X</a>, Soft cover: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87703-220-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87703-220-3">0-87703-220-3</a>.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-footstepstomars-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-footstepstomars_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-footstepstomars_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey A. Landis, "Footsteps to Mars: an Incremental Approach to Mars Exploration," <i>Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 48,</i> pp. 367-342 (1995); presented at Case for Mars V, Boulder CO, 26–29 May 1993; appears in <i>From Imagination to Reality: Mars Exploration Studies</i>, R. Zubrin, ed., <i>AAS Science and Technology Series Volume 91</i> pp. 339-350 (1997). (text available as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/Footsteps.pdf">Footsteps to Mars pdf file</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NASA, <i>Report of the 90-day study on human exploration of the Moon and Mars</i>, published 11/1989; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989STIN...9127055.">abstract</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dwayne Day, "Aiming for Mars, grounded on Earth," <i>The Space Review</i> February 16, 2004 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thespacereview.com/article/102/1">link</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. M. Zubrin, D. A. Baker and O. Gwynne, "Mars Direct: A Simple, Robust, and Cost Effective Architecture for the Space Exploration Initiative," paper AAS 90-168, in <i>The Case for Mars IV: The International Exploration of Mars, Part I, MISSION STRATEGY & ARCHITECTURES,</i> AAS Science and Technology Series Volume 89, Proceedings of the Case for Mars Conference, ed. Thomas R. Meyer, 1997 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87703-418-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87703-418-4">0-87703-418-4</a>).</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Zubrin and D. A. Baker, "Mars Direct: Humans to the Red Planet by 1999," 41st Congress of the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronautical_Federation" title="International Astronautical Federation">International Astronautical Federation</a> (1990)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-mendell-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mendell_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mendell_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mendell_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140419185049/http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/HumanExplore/Exploration/EXLibrary/Docs/EIC036.HTML">"ISU Manned Mars Mission"</a>. <i>archive.org</i>. 19 April 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/HumanExplore/Exploration/EXLibrary/Docs/EIC036.HTML">the original</a> on 19 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.org&rft.atitle=ISU+Manned+Mars+Mission&rft.date=2014-04-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fares.jsc.nasa.gov%2FHumanExplore%2FExploration%2FEXLibrary%2FDocs%2FEIC036.HTML&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trs.jpl.nasa.gov/handle/2014/41431">NASA Austere Human Missions to Mars</a> (2009)</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bret G. Drake, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marsjournal.org/contents/2006/0005/files/Drake1998.pdf">Reference Mission Version 3.0 Addendum to the Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploration Study Team</a>, NASA Report NASA/SP—6107–ADD, June 1998 (retrieved 2 October 2015)</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mars Architecture Steering Group (Bret G. Drake, ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/373667main_NASA-SP-2009-566-ADD.pdf">Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference Architecture 5.0</a>, NASA/SP–2009–566-ADD (Addendum to NASA/SP–2009–566), July 2009 (accessed 29 Sept. 2015)</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Yury Zaitsev (30 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.rian.ru/onlinenews/20050330/39700840.html">"Russia Suggests Manned Martian-Mission Plan"</a>. Rianovosty.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia+Suggests+Manned+Martian-Mission+Plan&rft.pub=Rianovosty&rft.date=2005-03-30&rft.au=Yury+Zaitsev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.rian.ru%2Fonlinenews%2F20050330%2F39700840.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Vladimir Isachenkov (29 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/10/29/russia-hopes-to-fly-human_n_338297.html">"Russia Hopes To Fly Humans To Mars With Nuclear Spaceship"</a>. The Huffington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia+Hopes+To+Fly+Humans+To+Mars+With+Nuclear+Spaceship&rft.pub=The+Huffington+Post&rft.date=2009-10-29&rft.au=Vladimir+Isachenkov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2F2009%2F10%2F29%2Frussia-hopes-to-fly-human_n_338297.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Fred Guterl (2005-11-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovermagazine.com/2005/nov/the-race-to-mars/article_view?b_start:int=1&-C=">"The Race to Mars"</a>. <i>Discover Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Discover+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Race+to+Mars&rft.date=2005-11-22&rft.au=Fred+Guterl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovermagazine.com%2F2005%2Fnov%2Fthe-race-to-mars%2Farticle_view%3Fb_start%3Aint%3D1%26-C%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2511-russia-proposes-manned-mars-mission-by-2015.html">"Russia proposes manned Mars mission by 2015" – 8 July 2002 – <i>New Scientist</i></a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/mmb/lunar_architecture.html">"NASA – ESMD"</a>. <i>nasa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasa.gov&rft.atitle=NASA+%E2%80%93+ESMD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2Fexploration%2Fmmb%2Flunar_architecture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adringa, J. M. et al. (2005), <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FAERO.2005.1559312">10.1109/AERO.2005.1559312</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jkmdP908t7rFtnuI4rNSCpCl3TTQ">AFP: NASA aims to put man on Mars by 2037</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071228103019/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jkmdP908t7rFtnuI4rNSCpCl3TTQ">Archived</a> 2007-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/01/20040114-3.html">"President Bush Announces New Vision for Space Exploration Program"</a>. <i>archives.gov</i>. 14 January 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archives.gov&rft.atitle=President+Bush+Announces+New+Vision+for+Space+Exploration+Program&rft.date=2004-01-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgeorgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov%2Fnews%2Freleases%2F2004%2F01%2F20040114-3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Space Age at 50</i>. <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>, October 2007 issue</span>
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<li id="cite_note-astronautix.com-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-astronautix.com_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/e/europeanmarsmission.html">European Mars Mission</a> Encyclopedia Astronautica</span>
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<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">english@peopledaily.com.cn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200607/20/eng20060720_284801.html">"People's Daily Online -- Roundup: China to develop deep space exploration in five years"</a>. <i>english.peopledaily.com.cn</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=english.peopledaily.com.cn&rft.atitle=People%27s+Daily+Online++--+Roundup%3A+China+to+develop+deep+space+exploration+in+five+years&rft.au=english%40peopledaily.com.cn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.peopledaily.com.cn%2F200607%2F20%2Feng20060720_284801.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://military.china.com/zh_cn/news/568/20060214/13091486.html">"中国嫦娥探月工程进展顺利 进度将有望加快--军事频道-中华网-中国最大职业人士门户"</a>. <i>china.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=china.com&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AB%A6%E5%A8%A5%E6%8E%A2%E6%9C%88%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E8%BF%9B%E5%B1%95%E9%A1%BA%E5%88%A9+%E8%BF%9B%E5%BA%A6%E5%B0%86%E6%9C%89%E6%9C%9B%E5%8A%A0%E5%BF%AB--%E5%86%9B%E4%BA%8B%E9%A2%91%E9%81%93-%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E7%BD%91-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E8%81%8C%E4%B8%9A%E4%BA%BA%E5%A3%AB%E9%97%A8%E6%88%B7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmilitary.china.com%2Fzh_cn%2Fnews%2F568%2F20060214%2F13091486.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce Mackenzie, One Way to Mars – a Permanent Settlement on the First Mission," presented at the 1998 International Space Development Conference, May 21–25, Milwaukee WI; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archivist.nss.org/Public/ISDC/ISDC1999_Houston/ConferenceMisc-DaleAmonPapers/ISDC99-Abstracts_CD/AIAA%20Abstracts/One%20Way%20to%20Mars.pdf">Abstract</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131113111102/http://archivist.nss.org/Public/ISDC/ISDC1999_Houston/ConferenceMisc-DaleAmonPapers/ISDC99-Abstracts_CD/AIAA%20Abstracts/One%20Way%20to%20Mars.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-11-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James C. McLane III, "Spirit of the Lone Eagle": an audacious program for a manned Mars landing, <i>The Space Review</i> July 31, 2006 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thespacereview.com/article/669/1">link</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James C. McLane III, "Starship Trooper," <i>Harper's Magazine</i> November 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harpers.org/archive/2006/11/0081263">link (pay subscription required)</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James C. McLane III, "One Way Ticket to Mars," <i>SEARCH Magazine</i> Jan/Feb 2009 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090308012700/http://www.searchmagazine.org/Archives/Back%20Issues/2009%20January-February/full-mars.html">link to archived copy</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Krauss-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krauss_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Krauss, Lawrence M. (31 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/01/opinion/01krauss.html">"A One-Way Ticket to Mars"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+One-Way+Ticket+to+Mars&rft.date=2009-08-31&rft.aulast=Krauss&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F09%2F01%2Fopinion%2F01krauss.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2009/06/26/buzz-aldrin-speaks-out-forget-the-moon-lets-head-to-mars/">Buzz Aldrin Speaks Out: Forget the Moon, Let's Head to Mars</a>, by Eliza Strickland, 26 June 2006, Discover Magazine</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-NYT-20130613-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20130613_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Aldrin, Buzz (13 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/14/opinion/global/buzz-aldrin-the-call-of-mars.html">"The Call of Mars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Call+of+Mars&rft.date=2013-06-13&rft.aulast=Aldrin&rft.aufirst=Buzz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F06%2F14%2Fopinion%2Fglobal%2Fbuzz-aldrin-the-call-of-mars.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-AP-20150827-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AP-20150827_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Dunn, Marcia (27 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apnews.excite.com/article/20150827/us-sci-buzz-aldrin-c7bc5ba293.html">"Buzz Aldrin joins university, forming 'master plan' for Mars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/AP_News" class="mw-redirect" title="AP News">AP News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=Buzz+Aldrin+joins+university%2C+forming+%27master+plan%27+for+Mars&rft.date=2015-08-27&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=Marcia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapnews.excite.com%2Farticle%2F20150827%2Fus-sci-buzz-aldrin-c7bc5ba293.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090012109_2009010520.pdf">Version 5 NASA (jan. 2009)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513234741/http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2010/09/congress-mostly-approves-new.html">"Congress Mostly Approves New Direction for NASA"</a>. <i>sciencemag.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2010/09/congress-mostly-approves-new.html">the original</a> on 13 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sciencemag.org&rft.atitle=Congress+Mostly+Approves+New+Direction+for+NASA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.sciencemag.org%2Fscienceinsider%2F2010%2F09%2Fcongress-mostly-approves-new.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Glenday, Craig (2013). <i>Guinness world records</i>. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-908843-15-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-908843-15-9">978-1-908843-15-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guinness+world+records&rft.pages=140&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-908843-15-9&rft.aulast=Glenday&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Sputnik (14 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.rian.ru/science/20090714/155522543.html">"Mars-500 crew report good health after experiment"</a>. <i>rian.ru</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rian.ru&rft.atitle=Mars-500+crew+report+good+health+after+experiment&rft.date=2009-07-14&rft.au=Sputnik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.rian.ru%2Fscience%2F20090714%2F155522543.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_manned_mars.html">"Russia's plans for manned Mars missions"</a>. <i>www.russianspaceweb.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.russianspaceweb.com&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+plans+for+manned+Mars+missions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.russianspaceweb.com%2Fspacecraft_manned_mars.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Marc Salotti, Acta Astronautica, Volume 69, Issues 5–6, September–October 2011, Pages 266–279.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Marc Salotti, Acta Astronautica, Volume 81, Issue 1, December 2012.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-mars-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mars_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mars_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mars_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mars_86-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mars_86-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mars_86-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Benton, Mark; Kutter, Bernard; Bamford, Ruth; Bingham, Bob; Todd, Tom; Stafford-Allen, Robin (2012). <i>Conceptual Space Vehicle Architecture for Human Exploration of Mars, with Artificial Gravity and Mini-Magnetosphere Crew Radiation Shield</i>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2514%2F6.2012-5114">10.2514/6.2012-5114</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60086-940-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60086-940-2">978-1-60086-940-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conceptual+Space+Vehicle+Architecture+for+Human+Exploration+of+Mars%2C+with+Artificial+Gravity+and+Mini-Magnetosphere+Crew+Radiation+Shield&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2514%2F6.2012-5114&rft.isbn=978-1-60086-940-2&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Kutter%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Bamford%2C+Ruth&rft.au=Bingham%2C+Bob&rft.au=Todd%2C+Tom&rft.au=Stafford-Allen%2C+Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-adario-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adario_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adario_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2405162,00.asp">"Dutch Group Planning for Mars Settlement by 2023"</a>. <i>PCMAG</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PCMAG&rft.atitle=Dutch+Group+Planning+for+Mars+Settlement+by+2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcmag.com%2Farticle2%2F0%2C2817%2C2405162%2C00.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iflscience.com/space/mars-one-torn-shreds-mit-debate">Mars One Torn To Shreds In MIT Debate</a>. August 21, 2015 by Jonathan O'Callaghan.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slashgear.com/mars-ones-ill-fated-dream-unsurprisingly-ends-in-bankruptcy-10565259/">Mars One's ill-fated dream unsurprisingly ends in bankruptcy</a>. J. C. Torres, <i>Slash Gear</i>. 10 February 2019.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2013/02/dennis-tito-mars">"Space Tourist to Announce Daring Manned Mars Voyage for 2018"</a>. <i>WIRED</i>. 20 February 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WIRED&rft.atitle=Space+Tourist+to+Announce+Daring+Manned+Mars+Voyage+for+2018&rft.date=2013-02-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fwiredscience%2F2013%2F02%2Fdennis-tito-mars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130226090920/http://thespacereporter.com/2013/02/millionaire-space-tourist-planning-historic-journey-to-mars-in-2018/">"Millionaire space tourist planning 'historic journey' to Mars in 2018 -"</a>. <i>The Space Reporter</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thespacereporter.com/2013/02/millionaire-space-tourist-planning-historic-journey-to-mars-in-2018/">the original</a> on 26 February 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Space+Reporter&rft.atitle=Millionaire+space+tourist+planning+%27historic+journey%27+to+Mars+in+2018+-&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthespacereporter.com%2F2013%2F02%2Fmillionaire-space-tourist-planning-historic-journey-to-mars-in-2018%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K.Klaus, M. L. Raftery and K. E. Post (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2014/eposter/2258">"An Affordable Mars Mission Design"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507235406/http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2014/eposter/2258">Archived</a> 2015-05-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Houston, Texas: Boeing Co.)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. L. Raftery (May 14, 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dropbox.com/s/0gagd1dbyptnvwg/Raftery_05-14-14.pdf">"Mission to Mars in Six (not so easy) Pieces"</a> (Houston, Texas: Boeing Co.)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NASA (December 2, 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBoj-1m-qLU">"NASA’s Journey to Mars News Briefing"</a> <i>NASA TV</i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Mahoney, Erin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-releases-plan-outlining-next-steps-in-the-journey-to-mars">"NASA Releases Plan Outlining Next Steps in the Journey to Mars"</a>. <i>NASA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=NASA+Releases+Plan+Outlining+Next+Steps+in+the+Journey+to+Mars&rft.aulast=Mahoney&rft.aufirst=Erin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpress-release%2Fnasa-releases-plan-outlining-next-steps-in-the-journey-to-mars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf">"NASA's Journey To Mars: Pioneering Next Steps in Space Exploration"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.nasa.gov</i>. NASA. October 8, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 10,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=NASA%27s+Journey+To+Mars%3A+Pioneering+Next+Steps+in+Space+Exploration&rft.date=2015-10-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fatoms%2Ffiles%2Fjourney-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-bolden-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bolden_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bolden_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bolden_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bolden_97-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bolden_97-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bolden_97-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bolden_97-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marsdaily.com/reports/NASA_Chief_Were_Closer_to_Sending_Humans_on_Mars_Than_Ever_Before_999.html">"NASA Chief: We're Closer to Sending Humans on Mars Than Ever Before"</a>. <i>marsdaily.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=marsdaily.com&rft.atitle=NASA+Chief%3A+We%27re+Closer+to+Sending+Humans+on+Mars+Than+Ever+Before&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marsdaily.com%2Freports%2FNASA_Chief_Were_Closer_to_Sending_Humans_on_Mars_Than_Ever_Before_999.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-gw20161023-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gw20161023_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Boyle, Alan (2016-10-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geekwire.com/2016/spacex-elon-musk-geeks-out-mars-reddit/">"SpaceX's Elon Musk geeks out over Mars interplanetary transport plan on Reddit"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/GeekWire" title="GeekWire">GeekWire</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GeekWire&rft.atitle=SpaceX%E2%80%99s+Elon+Musk+geeks+out+over+Mars+interplanetary+transport+plan+on+Reddit&rft.date=2016-10-23&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geekwire.com%2F2016%2Fspacex-elon-musk-geeks-out-mars-reddit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-sn20161010-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sn20161010_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Foust, Jeff (2016-10-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spacenewsmag.com/feature/can-elon-musk-get-to-mars/">"Can Elon Musk get to Mars?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Can+Elon+Musk+get+to+Mars%3F&rft.date=2016-10-10&rft.aulast=Foust&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spacenewsmag.com%2Ffeature%2Fcan-elon-musk-get-to-mars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-sfi20160927-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sfi20160927_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Richardson, Derek (2016-09-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/organizations/space-exploration-technologies/elon-musk-shows-off-interplanetary-transport-system/">"Elon Musk Shows Off Interplanetary Transport System"</a>. Spaceflight Insider<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Elon+Musk+Shows+Off+Interplanetary+Transport+System&rft.date=2016-09-27&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceflightinsider.com%2Forganizations%2Fspace-exploration-technologies%2Felon-musk-shows-off-interplanetary-transport-system%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NYT-20160927-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20160927_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Chang, Kenneth (27 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/28/science/elon-musk-spacex-mars-exploration.html">"Elon Musk's Plan: Get Humans to Mars, and Beyond"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Elon+Musk%E2%80%99s+Plan%3A+Get+Humans+to+Mars%2C+and+Beyond&rft.date=2016-09-27&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F09%2F28%2Fscience%2Felon-musk-spacex-mars-exploration.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-musk@smuHK20160126-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-musk@smuHK20160126_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation conference"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pIRqB5iqWA8"><i>2016 StartmeupHK Venture Forum – Elon Musk on Entrepreneurship and Innovation</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.startmeup.hk/en/startmeuphk-festival-2016/forum/">StartmeupHK Venture Forum--2016</a>. via InvestHK YouTube channel: Invest Hong Kong. 26 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2016</span>. <q>(SpaceX discussion at 30:15-31:40) <i>We'll have the next generation rocket and spacecraft, beyond the Falcon and Dragon series ... I'm hoping to describe that architecture later this year at the International Astronautical Congress. which is the big international space event every year. ... first flights to Mars? we're hoping to do that in around 2025 ... nine years from now or thereabouts.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=2016+StartmeupHK+Venture+Forum+%E2%80%93+Elon+Musk+on+Entrepreneurship+and+Innovation&rft.place=via+InvestHK+YouTube+channel&rft.pub=Invest+Hong+Kong&rft.date=2016-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DpIRqB5iqWA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Taylor, Harriet (2 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2016/06/02/musk-we-intend-to-launch-people-to-mars-in-2024.html">"Musk: We intend to launch people to Mars in 2024, arrival in 2025"</a>. <i>cnbc.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cnbc.com&rft.atitle=Musk%3A+We+intend+to+launch+people+to+Mars+in+2024%2C+arrival+in+2025&rft.date=2016-06-02&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Harriet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2016%2F06%2F02%2Fmusk-we-intend-to-launch-people-to-mars-in-2024.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/06/18/spacex_can_get_mankind_on_mars_in_10_or_12_years_claims_elon_musk/">"Elon Musk: Just watch me – I'll put HUMAN BOOTS on Mars by 2026"</a>. Theregister.co.uk<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Elon+Musk%3A+Just+watch+me+%E2%80%93+I%27ll+put+HUMAN+BOOTS+on+Mars+by+2026&rft.pub=Theregister.co.uk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2014%2F06%2F18%2Fspacex_can_get_mankind_on_mars_in_10_or_12_years_claims_elon_musk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-spacenews.com-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spacenews.com_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spacenews.com_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spacenews.com/musk-reiterates-plans-for-testing-bfr/">"Musk reiterates plans for testing BFR - SpaceNews.com"</a>. 12 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Musk+reiterates+plans+for+testing+BFR+-+SpaceNews.com&rft.date=2018-03-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fmusk-reiterates-plans-for-testing-bfr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-mars-base-camp-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mars-base-camp_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/ssc/mars-orion.html">"Mars Base Camp"</a>. <i>www.lockheedmartin.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lockheedmartin.com&rft.atitle=Mars+Base+Camp&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lockheedmartin.com%2Fus%2Fssc%2Fmars-orion.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Hambleton, Kathryn (28 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/deep-space-gateway-to-open-opportunities-for-distant-destinations">"Deep Space Gateway to Open Opportunities for Distant Destinations"</a>. <i>nasa.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Deep+Space+Gateway+to+Open+Opportunities+for+Distant+Destinations&rft.date=2017-03-28&rft.aulast=Hambleton&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Ffeature%2Fdeep-space-gateway-to-open-opportunities-for-distant-destinations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waaytv.com/space_alabama/how-nasa-plans-to-put-boots-on-mars-using-huntsville/article_6e3453de-13c5-11e7-847e-3fe56b428c09.html">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link since November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Berger, Eric (29 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/03/for-the-first-time-nasa-has-begun-detailing-its-deep-space-exploration-plans/">"Finally, some details about how NASA actually plans to get to Mars"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Finally%2C+some+details+about+how+NASA+actually+plans+to+get+to+Mars&rft.date=2017-03-29&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fscience%2F2017%2F03%2Ffor-the-first-time-nasa-has-begun-detailing-its-deep-space-exploration-plans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/dec/01/nasa-orion-spacecraft-human-mars-mission">"Nasa's Orion spacecraft prepares for launch in first step towards manned Mars mission"</a>. Washington Post<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-12-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nasa%27s+Orion+spacecraft+prepares+for+launch+in+first+step+towards+manned+Mars+mission&rft.pub=Washington+Post&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2014%2Fdec%2F01%2Fnasa-orion-spacecraft-human-mars-mission&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/NASA/status/539814651404754944">"Twitter feed of NASA"</a>. Twitter<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Twitter+feed+of+NASA&rft.pub=Twitter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2FNASA%2Fstatus%2F539814651404754944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/nasas-orion-flight-test-and-the-journey-to-mars/index.html#.VH62pTGVJK8">"NASA's Orion Flight Test and the Journey to Mars"</a>. NASA website<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-12-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NASA%27s+Orion+Flight+Test+and+the+Journey+to+Mars&rft.pub=NASA+website&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fcontent%2Fnasas-orion-flight-test-and-the-journey-to-mars%2Findex.html%23.VH62pTGVJK8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ars20161012-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ars20161012_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Berger, Eric (2016-10-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/10/why-obamas-giant-leap-to-mars-is-more-of-a-bunny-hop-right-now/">"Why Obama's "giant leap to Mars" is more of a bunny hop right now"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ars_Technica" title="Ars Technica">Ars Technica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Why+Obama%E2%80%99s+%22giant+leap+to+Mars%22+is+more+of+a+bunny+hop+right+now&rft.date=2016-10-12&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fscience%2F2016%2F10%2Fwhy-obamas-giant-leap-to-mars-is-more-of-a-bunny-hop-right-now%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnston, Ian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mars-colonists-red-brick-houses-live-in-engineers-nasa-mission-donald-trump-a7705541.html">"'Incredibly brave’ Mars colonists could live in red-brick houses, say engineers"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></i> (April 27, 2017).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11119362/India-celebrates-Mars-mission-cheaper-than-a-movie.html">"India celebrates Mars mission 'cheaper than a movie<span class="cs1-kern-right">'</span>"</a>. <i>Telegraph.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Telegraph.co.uk&rft.atitle=India+celebrates+Mars+mission+%27cheaper+than+a+movie%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Findia%2F11119362%2FIndia-celebrates-Mars-mission-cheaper-than-a-movie.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-spectrum.ieee.org-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spectrum.ieee.org_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spectrum.ieee.org_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spectrum.ieee.org/aerospace/space-flight/suiting-up-for-the-red-planet">"Suiting Up for the Red Planet"</a>. <i>ieee.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ieee.org&rft.atitle=Suiting+Up+for+the+Red+Planet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Faerospace%2Fspace-flight%2Fsuiting-up-for-the-red-planet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-authors.library.caltech.edu-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-authors.library.caltech.edu_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Natasha, Bosanac,; Ana, Diaz,; Victor, Dang,; Frans, Ebersohn,; Stefanie, Gonzalez,; Jay, Qi,; Nicholas, Sweet,; Norris, Tie,; Gianluca, Valentino,; Abigail, Fraeman,; Alison, Gibbings,; Tyler, Maddox,; Chris, Nie,; Jamie, Rankin,; Tiago, Rebelo,; Graeme, Taylor, (1 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://authors.library.caltech.edu/59437/">"Manned sample return mission to Phobos: A technology demonstration for human exploration of Mars"</a>. <i>authors.library.caltech.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=authors.library.caltech.edu&rft.atitle=Manned+sample+return+mission+to+Phobos%3A+A+technology+demonstration+for+human+exploration+of+Mars&rft.date=2014-03-01&rft.aulast=Natasha&rft.aufirst=Bosanac%2C&rft.au=Ana%2C+Diaz%2C&rft.au=Victor%2C+Dang%2C&rft.au=Frans%2C+Ebersohn%2C&rft.au=Stefanie%2C+Gonzalez%2C&rft.au=Jay%2C+Qi%2C&rft.au=Nicholas%2C+Sweet%2C&rft.au=Norris%2C+Tie%2C&rft.au=Gianluca%2C+Valentino%2C&rft.au=Abigail%2C+Fraeman%2C&rft.au=Alison%2C+Gibbings%2C&rft.au=Tyler%2C+Maddox%2C&rft.au=Chris%2C+Nie%2C&rft.au=Jamie%2C+Rankin%2C&rft.au=Tiago%2C+Rebelo%2C&rft.au=Graeme%2C+Taylor%2C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F59437%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry Page <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/604658main_5%20-%20Orion_MPCV_-_Human_Space_Exploration_Workshop_-_San_Diego1%201.pdf">Deep Space Exploration – Stepping Stones</a> builds up to "Red Rocks : Explore Mars from Deimos"</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/11437-mars-moons-exploration-astronauts-red-rocks.html">"One Possible Small Step Toward Mars Landing: A Martian Moon"</a>. <i>Space.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=One+Possible+Small+Step+Toward+Mars+Landing%3A+A+Martian+Moon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F11437-mars-moons-exploration-astronauts-red-rocks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-esa.int-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-esa.int_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-esa.int_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">esa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Exploration/Mars_Sample_Return_bridging_robotic_and_human_exploration">"Mars Sample Return: bridging robotic and human exploration"</a>. <i>esa.int</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=esa.int&rft.atitle=Mars+Sample+Return%3A+bridging+robotic+and+human+exploration&rft.au=esa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esa.int%2FOur_Activities%2FHuman_Spaceflight%2FExploration%2FMars_Sample_Return_bridging_robotic_and_human_exploration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-USRA-2008-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USRA-2008_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jones, S.M.; et al. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/msr2008/pdf/4020.pdf">"Ground Truth From Mars (2008) – Mars Sample Return at 6 Kilometers per Second: Practical, Low Cost, Low Risk, and Ready"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Universities_Space_Research_Association" title="Universities Space Research Association">USRA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 30,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ground+Truth+From+Mars+%282008%29+%E2%80%93+Mars+Sample+Return+at+6+Kilometers+per+Second%3A+Practical%2C+Low+Cost%2C+Low+Risk%2C+and+Ready&rft.pub=USRA&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Jones%2C+S.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lpi.usra.edu%2Fmeetings%2Fmsr2008%2Fpdf%2F4020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/2013decadal/">"Science Strategy – NASA Solar System Exploration"</a>. <i>NASA Solar System Exploration</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA+Solar+System+Exploration&rft.atitle=Science+Strategy+%E2%80%93+NASA+Solar+System+Exploration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsolarsystem.nasa.gov%2F2013decadal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ESA_–_Mars_Sample_Return-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ESA_–_Mars_Sample_Return_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ESA_–_Mars_Sample_Return_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">esa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Exploration/Mars_Sample_Return2">"Mars Sample Return"</a>. <i>esa.int</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=esa.int&rft.atitle=Mars+Sample+Return&rft.au=esa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esa.int%2FOur_Activities%2FHuman_Spaceflight%2FExploration%2FMars_Sample_Return2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-congrexprojects.com-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-congrexprojects.com_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.congrexprojects.com/docs/default-source/13c06_docs/session-1-rebuffat.pdf?sfvrsn=0">http://www.congrexprojects.com/docs/default-source/13c06_docs/session-1-rebuffat.pdf?sfvrsn=0</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-marsd-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-marsd_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-marsd_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spacedaily.com/news/mars-future-05f.html">"Next On Mars"</a>. <i>www.spacedaily.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.spacedaily.com&rft.atitle=Next+On+Mars&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spacedaily.com%2Fnews%2Fmars-future-05f.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Landis, G.A. "Teleoperation from Mars Orbit: A Proposal for Human Exploration". <i>Acta Astronautica</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 59–65. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AcAau..62...59L">2008AcAau..62...59L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2006.12.049">10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.12.049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Astronautica&rft.atitle=Teleoperation+from+Mars+Orbit%3A+A+Proposal+for+Human+Exploration&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-65&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2006.12.049&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008AcAau..62...59L&rft.aulast=Landis&rft.aufirst=G.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/>; presented as paper IAC-04-IAA.3.7.2.05, 55th International Astronautical Federation Congress, Vancouver BC, Oct. 4-8 2004.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-lupisella-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lupisella_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. L. Lupisella, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/reports/CB-1089/lupisella.pdf">"Human Mars Mission Contamination Issues"</a>, <i>Science and the Human Exploration of Mars,</i> January 11–12, 2001, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. LPI Contribution No. 1089. (accessed 11/15/2012)</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George R. Schmidt, Geoffrey A. Landis, and Steven R. Oleson NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, 44135 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://telerobotics.gsfc.nasa.gov/papers/Schmidt2011.pdf">HERRO Missions to Mars and Venus using Telerobotic Surface Exploration from Orbit</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513005633/http://telerobotics.gsfc.nasa.gov/papers/Schmidt2011.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 48th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition 4–7 January 2010, Orlando, Florida</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXnMjG5btkc&feature=relmfu">HERRO TeleRobotic Exploration of Mars, Geoffrey Landis, Mars Society 2010</a> 4 part YouTube Video</span>
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</li>
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</ol></div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><cite class="citation magazine">Collins, Michael (November 1988). "Mission to Mars". <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic (magazine)">National Geographic</a></i>. Vol. 174 no. 5. pp. 732–764. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-9358">0027-9358</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/643483454">643483454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Mission+to+Mars&rft.volume=174&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=732-764&rft.date=1988-11&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F643483454&rft.issn=0027-9358&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+mission+to+Mars" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"/></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_mission_to_Mars&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<tbody><tr>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Manned_missions_to_Mars" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Manned missions to Mars">Manned missions to Mars</a></b></i>.</td></tr></tbody></table>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070626154441/http://exploration.jsc.nasa.gov/marsref/contents.html">Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission</a> Design Reference Mission 1.0</li>
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||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714134008/http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/SP-6107-ADD.pdf">Reference Mission Version 3.0, Addedum to Human Exploration of Mars</a> Design Reference Mission 3.0</li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100903144152/http://www.astronautix.com/fam/martions.htm">Mars Expeditions & Flybys</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120618074919/http://www.astronautix.com/fam/marflyby.htm">Selected Flybys</a> List of most crewed mission projects to Mars</li>
|
||
<li>a longer bibliography can be found in the bibliography of Portree's book, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025181718/http://history.nasa.gov/monograph21/Bibliography.pdf">available in pdf format from NASA</a>.</li></ul>
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<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mars" title="Template:Mars"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mars" title="Template talk:Mars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Mars&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Outline_of_Mars"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Mars" title="Outline of Mars">Outline of Mars</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mars" title="Geography of Mars">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_general_circulation_model" title="Mars general circulation model">Circulation</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Mars" title="Climate of Mars">Climate</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Dust_devil_tracks" title="Dust devil tracks">Dust devil tracks</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#Methane" title="Atmosphere of Mars">Methane</a></li></ul>
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_terrae_on_Mars" title="List of terrae on Mars">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Cerberus_Hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerberus Hemisphere">Cerberus Hemisphere</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Cydonia_(region_of_Mars)" title="Cydonia (region of Mars)">Cydonia</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Eridania_Lake" title="Eridania Lake">Eridania Lake</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Iani_Chaos" title="Iani Chaos">Iani Chaos</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Olympia_Undae" title="Olympia Undae">Olympia Undae</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">Planum Australe</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum" title="Planum Boreum">Planum Boreum</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quadrangles_on_Mars" title="List of quadrangles on Mars">Quadrangles</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Sinus_Meridiani" title="Sinus Meridiani">Sinus Meridiani</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Tempe_Terra" title="Tempe Terra">Tempe Terra</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Cimmeria" title="Terra Cimmeria">Terra Cimmeria</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sabaea" title="Terra Sabaea">Terra Sabaea</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis" title="Tharsis">Tharsis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_dune_fields" title="List of extraterrestrial dune fields">Undae</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultimi_Scopuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimi Scopuli">Ultimi Scopuli</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Vastitas Borealis</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Common_surface_features_of_Mars" title="Common surface features of Mars">Physical<br />features</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martian_canal" title="Martian canal">"Canals"</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_canals" title="List of Martian canals">list</a>)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Chasma#Mars" title="Chasma">Canyons</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Crater_chain" title="Crater chain">Catenae</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_terrain" title="Chaos terrain">Chaos terrain</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mars" title="List of craters on Mars">Craters</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fossa_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossa (geology)">Fossae</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gully_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gully (Mars)">Gullies</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mensa_(geology)" title="Mensa (geology)">Mensae</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Labyrinthi_(planetary_geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinthi (planetary geology)">Labyrinthi</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars" title="List of mountains on Mars">Mountains</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars_by_height" title="List of mountains on Mars by height">by height</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">Observed rocks</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">Outflow channels</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plains_on_Mars" title="List of plains on Mars">Plains</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Valley_network" title="Valley network">Valley network</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Vallis_(planetary_geology)" title="Vallis (planetary geology)">Valleys</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Mars" title="Gravity of Mars">Gravity</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_terrain" title="Brain terrain">Brain terrain</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Carbonates_on_Mars" title="Carbonates on Mars">Carbonates</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars" title="List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars">Chaos terrain</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_surface_color" title="Mars surface color">Color</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_Mars" title="Composition of Mars">Composition</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_crater_fill" title="Concentric crater fill">Concentric crater fill</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Dark_slope_streak" title="Dark slope streak">Dark slope streak</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_dichotomy" title="Martian dichotomy">Dichotomy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fretted_terrain" title="Fretted terrain">Fretted terrain</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geyser_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geyser (Mars)">Geysers</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Glaciers_on_Mars" title="Glaciers on Mars">Glaciers</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars" title="Groundwater on Mars">Groundwater</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gully_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gully (Mars)">Gullies</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_on_Mars" title="Lakes on Mars">Lakes</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_lava_tube" title="Martian lava tube">Lava tubes</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_apron" title="Lobate debris apron">Lobate debris apron</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Marsquake" title="Marsquake">Marsquake</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite" title="Martian meteorite">Meteorites</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_meteorites" title="List of Martian meteorites">on Earth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">on Mars</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mud_cracks_on_Mars" title="Mud cracks on Mars">Mud cracks</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/North_Polar_Basin_(Mars)" title="North Polar Basin (Mars)">North Polar Basin</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_ocean_hypothesis" title="Mars ocean hypothesis">Ocean hypothesis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ore_resources_on_Mars" title="Ore resources on Mars">Ore resources</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps" title="Martian polar ice caps">Polar caps</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Recurring slope lineae (RSL)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ring_mold_crater" title="Ring mold crater">Ring mold craters</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cone" title="Rootless cone">Rootless cones</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Seasonal flows</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" title="Martian soil">Soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_spherules" title="Martian spherules">Spherules</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_surface" title="Martian surface">Surface</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_cheese_features" title="Swiss cheese features">"Swiss cheese" feature</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Terrain_softening" title="Terrain softening">Terrain softening</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis#Location_and_Size" title="Tharsis">Tharsis bulge</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology_of_Mars" title="Volcanology of Mars">Volcanology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_on_Mars" title="Water on Mars">Water</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Yardangs_on_Mars" title="Yardangs on Mars">Yardangs</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Mars" title="Geological history of Mars">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Noachian" title="Noachian">Noachian</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mars_observation" title="History of Mars observation">Observation history</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars" title="Classical albedo features on Mars">Classical albedo features</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_on_Mars" title="Astronomy on Mars">Astronomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" title="Moons of Mars">Moons</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stickney_(crater)" title="Stickney (crater)">Stickney crater</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_monolith" title="Phobos monolith">Monolith</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swift_(Deimian_crater)" title="Swift (Deimian crater)">Swift crater</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire_(crater)" title="Voltaire (crater)">Voltaire crater</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transit_(astronomy)" title="Transit (astronomy)">Transits</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipses_on_Mars" title="Solar eclipses on Mars">Solar eclipses on Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li>Satellite transits
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Phobos_from_Mars" title="Transit of Phobos from Mars">Phobos</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Deimos_from_Mars" title="Transit of Deimos from Mars">Deimos</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li>Planetary transits
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Earth_from_Mars" title="Transit of Earth from Mars">Earth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Transit_of_Venus_from_Mars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transit of Venus from Mars (page does not exist)">Venus</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Mercury_from_Mars" title="Transit of Mercury from Mars">Mercury</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mars-crossing minor planets">Mars-crossers</a>
|
||
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2007_WD5" title="2007 WD5">2007 WD<span style="position: relative; top: 0.3em;"><span style="font-size:80%;">5</span></span></a></span></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_trojan" title="Mars trojan">Trojans</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/5261_Eureka" title="5261 Eureka">5261 Eureka</a></li>
|
||
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/(101429)_1998_VF31" title="(101429) 1998 VF31">1998 VF<sub>31</sub></a></span></li>
|
||
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/(121514)_1999_UJ7" title="(121514) 1999 UJ7">1999 UJ<sub>7</sub></a></span></li>
|
||
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/(311999)_2007_NS2" title="(311999) 2007 NS2">2007 NS<sub>2</sub></a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comets</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/C/2013_A1" title="C/2013 A1">C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mars close approach, 19 Oct 2014)</span></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_flyby" title="Mars flyby">Flyby</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars_orbiters" title="List of Mars orbiters">Orbiter</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_landing" title="Mars landing">Landing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">Rover</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sample_return_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars sample return mission">Sample return</a></li>
|
||
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Manned mission</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_to_Stay" title="Mars to Stay">Permanent settlement</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars" title="Colonization of Mars">Colonization</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars" title="Terraforming of Mars">Terraforming</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mars_spacecraft" title="Template:Mars spacecraft">Missions</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_Mars" title="List of missions to Mars">List of missions to Mars</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mars_Project" title="The Mars Project">The Mars Project</a></i></li>
|
||
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Mars" title="The Case for Mars">The Case for Mars</a></i></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars Foundation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Institute" title="Mars Institute">Mars Institute</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Society" title="Mars Society">Mars Society</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_race" title="Mars race">Mars race</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_on_Mars" title="List of artificial objects on Mars">Artificial objects on Mars</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_memorials#Mars" title="List of extraterrestrial memorials">Memorials on Mars</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_in_fiction" title="Mars in fiction">Fiction</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_on_Mars" title="List of films set on Mars">List of films set on Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian" title="Martian">Martian</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_scientist" title="Martian scientist">Martian scientist</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mythology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_and_Deimos_in_fiction" title="Phobos and Deimos in fiction">Phobos and Deimos in fiction</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Mars" title="Flag of Mars">Flag of Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">Life on Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Earth" title="Sub-Earth">Sub-Earth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Timekeeping_on_Mars" title="Timekeeping on Mars">Timekeeping on Mars</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darian_calendar" title="Darian calendar">Darian calendar</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
|
||
<ul><li> <img alt="Wikipedia book" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Wikipedia book" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/23px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/31px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Book:Mars" title="Book:Mars">Book</a></li>
|
||
<li> <img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mars" title="Category:Mars">Category</a></li>
|
||
<li> <img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Mars" title="Portal:Mars">Portal</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_mission_to_Mars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_missions_to_Mars" title="Template:Human missions to Mars"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_missions_to_Mars" title="Template talk:Human missions to Mars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Human_missions_to_Mars&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_mission_to_Mars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human mission</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div id="*_List_of_crewed_Mars_mission_plans">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_Mars_mission_plans" title="List of crewed Mars mission plans">List of crewed Mars mission plans</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">21st-century proposals</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_programme" title="Aurora programme">Aurora programme</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Austere_Human_Missions_to_Mars" title="Austere Human Missions to Mars">Austere Human Missions to Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program#Mission_to_Mars_and_beyond" title="Chinese space program">Chinese mission to Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Constellation_program#Orion_Mars_mission" title="Constellation program">Constellation program</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Base_Camp" title="Mars Base Camp">Mars Base Camp</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_One" title="Mars One">Mars One</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Piloted_Orbital_Station" title="Mars Piloted Orbital Station">Mars Piloted Orbital Station</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_to_Stay" title="Mars to Stay">Mars to Stay</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Mars_transportation_infrastructure" title="SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure">SpaceX Mars transportation infrastructure</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">Vision for Space Exploration</a></li></ul>
|
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</div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_mission.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Mars mission.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mars_mission.jpg/155px-Mars_mission.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="106" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mars_mission.jpg/233px-Mars_mission.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mars_mission.jpg/310px-Mars_mission.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2032" data-file-height="1393" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">20th-century proposals</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
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<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mars_Project" title="The Mars Project">The Mars Project</a></i></li>
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Design_Reference_Mission" title="Mars Design Reference Mission">Mars Design Reference Mission</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Design_Reference_Mission_3.0" title="NASA Design Reference Mission 3.0">3.0</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mars_analog_habitat" title="Mars analog habitat">Mars analogs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars_analogs" title="List of Mars analogs">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/MARS-500" title="MARS-500">MARS-500</a></li>
|
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|
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashline_Mars_Arctic_Research_Station" title="Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station">FMARS</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Desert_Research_Station" title="Mars Desert Research Station">MDRS</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/European_Mars_Analog_Research_Station" title="European Mars Analog Research Station">Euro-MARS</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Mars_Analog_Research_Station" title="Australia Mars Analog Research Station">MARS-Oz</a></li></ul></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Mars_Analog_Svalbard_Expedition" title="Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition">Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition</a></li>
|
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|
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caves_of_Mars_Project" title="Caves of Mars Project">Caves of Mars Project</a></li>
|
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|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Society" title="Mars Society">Mars Society</a></li></ul>
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Hardware concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_habitat" title="Mars habitat">Mars habitat</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Crewed_Mars_rover" title="Crewed Mars rover">Crewed Mars rover</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_suit" title="Mars suit">Mars suit</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Excursion_Module" title="Mars Excursion Module">Mars Excursion Module</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_landing" title="Mars landing">Mars lander</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">Mars rover</a></li></ul>
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars" title="Colonization of Mars">Colonization of Mars</a></li>
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|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_in_fiction" title="Mars in fiction">Fiction</a>
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|
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|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars" title="Terraforming of Mars">Terraforming of Mars</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_atmospheric_entry" title="Mars atmospheric entry">Mars atmospheric entry</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_flyby" title="Mars flyby">Mars flyby</a></li></ul>
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</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="بعثة مأهولة إلى المريخ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidsk%C3%A1_mise_na_Mars" title="Lidská mise na Mars – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bemannter_Marsflug" title="Bemannter Marsflug – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viaje_tripulado_a_Marte" title="Viaje tripulado a Marte – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="مأموریت سفر انسان به مریخ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_habit%C3%A9e_vers_Mars" title="Mission habitée vers Mars – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%9D%B8%ED%99%94%EC%84%B1%ED%83%90%EC%82%AC" title="유인화성탐사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manna%C3%B0ur_lei%C3%B0angur_til_Mars" title="Mannaður leiðangur til Mars – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missioni_con_equipaggio_su_Marte" title="Missioni con equipaggio su Marte – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D" title="משימות מאוישות למאדים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilv%C4%93ku_misija_uz_Marsu" title="Cilvēku misija uz Marsu – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emberes_Mars-exped%C3%ADci%C3%B3" title="Emberes Mars-expedíció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bemande_ruimtevaart_naar_Mars" title="Bemande ruimtevaart naar Mars – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E4%BA%BA%E7%81%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%8E%A2%E6%9F%BB" title="有人火星探査 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Za%C5%82ogowa_wyprawa_na_Marsa" title="Załogowa wyprawa na Marsa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss%C3%A3o_tripulada_a_Marte" title="Missão tripulada a Marte – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%91%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81" title="Пилотируемый полёт на Марс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miehitetty_Mars-lento" title="Miehitetty Mars-lento – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bemannade_Marsexpeditioner" title="Bemannade Marsexpeditioner – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nsanl%C4%B1_Mars_u%C3%A7u%C5%9Fu" title="İnsanlı Mars uçuşu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81" title="Пілотований політ на Марс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BC%89%E4%BA%BA%E7%81%AB%E6%98%9F%E4%BB%BB%E5%8B%99" title="載人火星任務 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul>
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